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Evaluation of the possibilities of substituting potent greenhouse gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF₆)

3 Application of HFC substances and their substitution possibilities

HFC (hydrofluorocarbons) is the term for a number of substances produced by replacing a number of fluoride atoms on hydrocarbons, however, in such a way that hydrogen atoms are still left in the molecule. The most common HFC substances are:

Mixtures

The term R-134a is frequently seen, in which "R" stands for Refrigerant. The term HFA-134a is also seen. It is the same as HFC-134a. HFC substances often form part of refrigerant mixtures numbered with the R-400 series or the R-500 series. In appendix A, a table of refrigerants and refrigerant mixtures is shown.

In Denmark, the HFC substances are mainly used as refrigerant in refrigeration systems and as blowing agent of polyurethane foam. HFC substances are however also use for a number of other purposes, e.g. as propellant in special aerosols. Abroad, HFCs are used for special fire extinguishing purposes.

This chapter is divided into main areas of application. Section 3.1 deals with the refrigeration industry and is divided into subsections dealing with household refrigerators and freezers, commercial refrigerators and freezers, etc.

Section 3.2 deals with polyurethane foam and XPS foam. Section 3.3 deals with fire extinction. Section 3.4 deals with aerosol containers. Section 3.5 deals with other areas of application of HFC substances.

3.1 The refrigeration industry

15,000 employees

Denmark has a large refrigeration industry with internationally known companies such as Danfoss, York Refrigeration, Gram, Vestfrost, Caravell, Elcold and others. It is assessed that approx. 15,000 are employed in the refrigeration industry, which has a turnover of more than 15 billion DKK per year. It is thus an industry of great importance to the Danish economy and employment.

The refrigeration industry produces a large number of products, which covers a wide spectrum. It could be refrigerators and freezers of which there is a large production. It could also be industrial refrigeration systems of which York Refrigeration (former Sabroe) is the world's largest producer. It could be components for refrigeration systems of which Danfoss is the world's largest producer, or it could be a small refrigeration company assembling a commercial refrigeration system in a supermarket.

In this section, the refrigeration industry is divided into main products. Subsection 3.1.1 deals with household refrigerators and freezers. This subsection comprises both the application of HFC as refrigerant in refrigeration systems and the application of HFC for insulating foam in cabinets as these application areas are closely connected.

3.1.1 Household refrigerators and freezers

1.5 million units per year

There are six Danish producers of refrigerators and freezers, i.e. Vestfrost, Gram, Caravell, Derby, Frigor and Elcold. In total, they produce approx. 1.5 million units per year, and the vast majority is exported. More than 1 million units are household units and almost half a million units are commercial units.

The sale in Denmark of household refrigerators and freezers has for years been approx. 300,000 per year. A large number of these have been imported from especially Germany, Italy and Sweden.

5,000 employees

It is assessed that approx. 5,000 employees are producing refrigerators, freezers and components for these. It is an industry of significant importance to the Danish economy and employment.

The story behind the phase-out of the CFCs and later the HCFCs in household refrigerators and freezers is described in detail in the report from 1998. For that reason, it will not be repeated here.

It should however be mentioned that all large producers in Europe have used cyclopentane as blowing agent of insulating foam for several years and that the market share for isobutane as refrigerant is increasing and in many places, it makes up more than 50%. In Germany it is close to 100%.

The new hydrocarbon refrigerators are just as energy-efficient as HFC refrigerators and there is no additional charge on raw materials and components. The conversion from CFC, HCFC or HFC to hydrocarbons is very expensive. This investment was however made several years ago by the large producers in Europe. In Denmark, the largest producer (Vestfrost) made this investment in 1993.

The small Danish producers have used HFC (or HCFC) as blowing agent of the insulating foam. HFC is used because it is still cheaper than cyclopentane, as cyclopentane requires a little more plastic mass in the foam. This aspect has however been compensated for by new plastic formulas.

According to the analysis of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 241.2 tons of HFC-134a was used in 1999 as blowing agent of insulating foam in "refrigerator and freezers, etc.". Moreover, 204 tons of HFC-134a and 24 tons of R404A were used as refrigerant in "household and commercial refrigerators, freezers, etc.".

Several of the small Danish producers have recently converted their production to hydrocarbons. This has especially occurred due to the introduction of an environmental tax on the HFC substances.

420 models

The Danish Electricity Saving Trust has analysed the number of hydrocarbons refrigerators and found that there were more than 420 models on the Danish market. Many of these were imported from Germany, Sweden, Slovenia and Italy.

However, the Danish producers still want to produce units using HFC refrigerant to countries demanding these.

The same applies to the United States where it is not possible at the moment to sell refrigerators using a flammable refrigerant. The new draft statutory order on ban on certain applications of HFCs, PFCs and SF₆ also permits production and export of refrigerators using HFC. Products with HFC, which are exported, will also have the tax on HFC refunded.

Economic barriers

The HFC free technology is available and it is only economic barriers, which may prevent it from being used. The economic barriers mainly consist of investments in production plants, as it is often necessary to rebuild the factory in order to develop special fireproof areas in connection with the foaming process and in connection with the charging of refrigerant.

In addition, investments have to be made in charging equipment for hydrocarbons. Furthermore, the personnel have to be trained. Finally, the new products have to be approved and laboratory tests have to be carried out in order to measure energy consumption, etc.

Hydrocarbon compressors

It can be mentioned that a completely new compressor technology is being introduced. Danfoss has thus introduced a series of compressors for household freezers. These are for isobutane and can operate with variable speed. In this way, large energy savings of up to 30-40% can be obtained.

The energy saving is not a result of the refrigerant, rather of the possibility of improving the control of the appliance. The new compressors are included in Danfoss’ product programme and is expected to have an increasing sale in the coming years. The price is for the time being somewhat higher than conventional compressors.

It should however be mentioned that hydrocarbon compressors for direct current (12 V or 24V) are not available at the moment and that HFC-134a is used as refrigerant in small refrigerators and freezers for lorries, yachts or other applications for areas without supply voltage. Direct-current compressors for isobutane should be possible to develop, but it requires that the compressor producer makes an investment, and this implies that there is a market for these compressors.

Vaccine coolers

A great number of vaccine coolers are produced in Denmark for use in i.a. India. WHO and UNICEF co-ordinate the purchase of these and require that HFC-134a is used as refrigerant. Recently, there have been some indications that hydrocarbons will be another possibility in the future. This requires however that an infrastructure is established for service etc. of these appliances in the countries where they are used. The majority of the vaccine coolers use 220 V alternating current, but a small number of appliances with direct-current compressors are also produced which are driven by solar cells.

3.1.2 Commercial refrigerators and freezers

Ice cream freezers and bottle coolers

The same companies which produce household refrigerators and freezers (i.e. Vestfrost, Gram, Caravell, Derby, Frigor and Elcold) have a large production of commercial refrigerators and freezers as well. This is especially ice cream freezers and bottle coolers for shops, but also refrigerators for hotels, restaurants, bakeries, etc. to a lesser extent.

The production of bottle coolers and ice cream freezers takes place almost in the same way as the production of household refrigerators and freezers. The production comprises almost 500,000 units per year and the vast majority is exported.

The insulating foam is produced as mentioned above.

New compressors

Until recently, hydrocarbon compressors have not been available in the right size for commercial appliances. Danfoss Compressors has now a complete compressor programme for hydrocarbons. The small compressors (for household refrigerators and freezers and small commercial units) use isobutane (R600a) as refrigerant, while the large compressors for other commercial refrigerators and freezers use propane (R290) as refrigerant. They will be applicable in most commercial refrigerators and freezers.

Coca-Cola and Unilever

In Denmark, two development projects have been carried out which have been subsidised by the Danish Energy Agency. In these projects, a new compressor is used (developed by Danfoss Compressors), in which isobutane is used as refrigerant and which can operate with variable speed. In one of the projects, the Coca-Cola Company, Vestfrost and the Danish Technological Institute have developed a new type of bottle cooler, which through field test of 40 bottle coolers has shown an energy saving of approx. 40% compared to conventional bottle coolers. The saving is mainly due to the possibility of adjusting the cooling performance to the cooling requirement and more efficient fans, etc. This project has been a contributory factor in the Coca-Cola Companys decision to stop purchasing equipment using HFC from 2004 and to purchase equipment which has an energy consumption which is 40-50% lower in 2010. A variant of the bottle cooler was supplied to the Olympic Games in Sydney in 2000, and Vestfrost now markets the new bottle cooler in three variants. The Coca-Cola Company is the world's largest producer of soft drinks.

In the second project, test of 50 ice cream freezers with the same compressor showed a saving of approx. 50%. This project was carried out in a co-operation between Frisko Is (Unilever), Caravell A/S and the Danish Technological Institute. The saving is again due to adjustment of the cooling performance and cooling requirement as well as better glass lids. Unilever has in a similar way as the Coca-Cola Company decided to stop the purchase of HFC containing appliances from 2005. Unilever is the world largest producer of ice cream.

Currently, a project is carried out between Gram Commercial A/S, the Danish Technological Institute and several potential buyers and users of commercial kitchen appliances. In this project, new types of commercial kitchen appliances have been developed using propane as refrigerant and having an energy saving of approx. 50%. In November 2001, ten new refrigerators and 10 new freezers will be set up for field test in selected commercial kitchens. Gram Commercial plans to market it appliances very soon.

150 grams

The present standard for household refrigerators and freezers (DS/EN60335-2-24 "Safety of household and similar electrical appliances – Part 2: Particular requirements for refrigerators, food freezers and ice-makers") specifies that the refrigerant charge for flammable refrigerants is limited to 150 grams. Strictly speaking, this standard does not embrace refrigeration and freezing for commercial use, but it is assessed that most of the commercial refrigerators and freezers will have a refrigerant charge smaller than this amount.

Large bottle coolers (two or three door models) using hydrocarbons as refrigerant have not yet been seen. It is recommended to commence a project in this area in order to demonstrate that hydrocarbons can be used.

3.1.3 Commercial refrigeration systems

Commercial refrigeration systems are systems, which e.g. are used for refrigeration in supermarkets, specialty shops, hotels and restaurants as well as in computer rooms. It can also be small refrigeration systems in the industry.

Supermarkets

Typical commercial refrigeration systems are e.g. found in supermarkets in which direct refrigeration has been used so far. The cooling compressors are located in a machinery room separate from the cooling place. The refrigerant liquid is sent through long pipes into the shop where it evaporates in the cooling surfaces in the fresh food and freezer display cabinets and other cabinets in the shop.

The refrigerant gas returns to the compressors. This principle is found in several different variants and sizes, from small bakeries or butcheries to computer centrals, hotels and restaurants as well as very large department stores with more than 50 cooling places.

In section 3.1.7, air-conditioning systems are described, but it should be mentioned that there is no clear distinction between commercial refrigeration systems and air-conditioning systems. Systems having several cooling places, including air-conditioning are frequently seen.

CFC or HCFC based refrigerants were previously used such as R-502, HCFC-22 and CFC-12. In recent years, many systems have been converted to HFC based refrigerants such as HFC-134a or R-404A. New systems have also been built which use HFC refrigerants. However, some systems have recently been built with indirect refrigeration (in Denmark and abroad) (cf. later).

Leakage

The field of commercial refrigeration is the most varied field within the refrigeration industry. A large number of companies sell and install refrigeration systems. The refrigeration systems are constructed of purchased standard components. Long pipelines are often involved and the leakage rate has previously been very high (i.e. approx. 20-25% of the refrigerant charge per year).

In recent years, the three refrigeration associations AKB (Authorised Refrigeration Installers Association), Danish Refrigeration Association and Selskabet for Køleteknik have done a great deal to improve the quality, so that the systems become more leakproof. This implies that the emission of new systems is reduced by approx. 10% per year.

High economic value

The commercial refrigeration systems constitute a very high economic value, as there are many of them. At the same time, there are a vast number of variants of refrigeration systems. In appendix B, an analysis has been carried out of the different types and status for alternative systems, which do not use HFC refrigerant.

According to the Danish Environmental Protection Agency's statement, 319 tons of HFC refrigerant was used in 1999 in "Commercial stationary refrigeration systems and air-conditioning systems".

Consumption of HFC refrigerant in commercial stationary refrigeration systems and air-conditioning systems in 1999. The figures are from the annual statement of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency carried out by COWI.

KMO

Due to the high economic value of existing commercial refrigeration systems, it will be sensible to let them continue in operation, but make them as leakproof as possible. When the refrigeration systems are to be scraped, the refrigerant should obviously be emptied out and sent to KMO (Kølebranchens MiljøOrdning (the Danish refrigeration industry's environmental scheme)). Here, the refrigerant will either be regenerated and recycled or sent to destruction.

KMO is a voluntary scheme in the refrigeration industry and has been subsidised by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency.

Natural refrigerants

Natural refrigerants are substances naturally occurring in nature, e.g. ammonia, hydrocarbons, CO₂, water and air.

In Denmark and abroad, supermarket systems have been built in which natural refrigerants are used, i.e. ammonia or hydrocarbons. As these refrigerants are not permitted inside the supermarket, indirect refrigeration is used, i.e. a secondary coolant (brine) must be used.

In Sweden, Bonus Energi (a subsidiary of York Refrigeration) has built approx. 400 "chillers" using hydrocarbon since 1996. Most of them are for air-conditioning, but a few have been installed in supermarkets.

In Denmark, two demonstration systems using hydrocarbons have been built in Odense and Beder near Aarhus respectively.

New analysis

The Danish Technological Institute has carried out a new analysis of commercial refrigeration systems. The analysis, which can be seen in appendix B, describes whether alternatives are available for a given application, estimates the additional costs of HFC free systems and estimates any additional energy consumption of HFC free systems.

In the analysis, commercial refrigeration has been divided into two parameters: type of system and application.

Types of systems are plug-in units, split units, chillers (liquid coolers) and compressor system. The last-mentioned is characterised by having many parallel evaporators, which is known from supermarket systems in Denmark. Applications are divided into supermarkets, kiosks, specialty shops, hotels and restaurants as well as agriculture.

Supermarkets

In Denmark, there are approx. 2,200 supermarkets in which the main part of the refrigeration is performed by remote systems/compressor systems. In addition, there are approx. 2,000 grocer's shops in which the refrigeration either is performed by a remote system or a split unit in small shops.

The alternative technology is indirect refrigeration or semi-indirect refrigeration. Semi-indirect refrigeration is made by means of hydrocarbons as primary refrigerant. CO₂ is used for freezing purposes, while a traditional brine (e.g. glycol) is used as secondary refrigerant for refrigeration purposes.

Semi-indirect refrigeration system in Odense. Propane is used as primary refrigerant, while CO₂ is used for freezing purposes. A brine is used as secondary coolant for refrigeration purposes.

The additional costs of semi-indirect systems are of the order of 10% for large supermarkets and 15% for small supermarkets. The energy consumption is very much the same as for HFC systems (+/–5%).

Kiosks, specialty shops, etc.

Small plug-in units using hydrocarbons as refrigerant are being introduced on the market (bottle coolers, ice cream freezers and commercial kitchen appliances).

In large plug-in units it is possible to use indirect refrigeration, but this will result in a higher energy consumption (approx. 10%) and an additional cost of approx. 20%.

It is possible to use semi-indirect refrigeration, but such systems have not yet been fully developed. Such systems will have an energy consumption very much the same as HFC systems and will cost approx. 20% more.

Approx. 18,000 refrigeration systems have been installed in agriculture and market gardening. Most are used for cooling of milk, and it is assessed that it will be possible in the future to use hydrocarbons. There will be an additional cost of approx. 10%, and the energy consumption will remain the same (or a little less) than corresponding HFC systems. For more details, please cf. appendix B.

Evaluation of alternative technology

Alternatives for large commercial refrigeration systems such as supermarket refrigeration systems are available. It is more difficult with the small commercial refrigeration systems for small shops, etc. The limit is approx. 20 kW in cooling performance.

For small plug-in systems, alternative solutions are available for most applications.

The analysis in appendix B demonstrates that even though alternative systems might use more energy (up to 10% more), the alternative systems will still contribute less to the greenhouse effect. This is due to leakage of refrigerant from the HFC systems.

Education

At the moment, a new education is being prepared for refrigeration installers at the technical College of Jutland in Hadsten, Denmark. The education will start in the autumn of 2001 or at the beginning of 2002. In this way, one of the problems with regard to construction and servicing of commercial refrigeration systems using hydrocarbons is solved. The education will focus much on safety and will be completed with an exam after which a certificate will be issued. The duration of the education will be one or two weeks.

There might however be problems with the education capacity (2,000 people have to pass through the system before 2006), and there might also be problems because the refrigeration companies do not have certificated employees to construct the first systems with hydrocarbons. An exemption scheme is being negotiated with the Danish Working Environment Service.

Legislation

The Danish Technological Institute has with subsidy from the Danish Environmental Agency and in co-operation with i.a. the Danish Working Environment Service, the Emergency Management Agency, the Electricity Council and York Køleteknik prepared the Danish report: "Kulbrinter i mellemstore køleanlæg" ("Hydrocarbons in medium-sized refrigeration systems"). In this report, the legal issues have been clarified, and there is now clarification of the scope of the legislation, but there are still areas open to interpretation.

The report (Miljøprojekt 604) can be seen on the Danish Environmental Protection Agency's homepage. Even though the legislation has been clarified, the material can be difficult to understand for refrigeration installers, and it is assumed that it requires courses, etc. to communicate the information.

Components

After the new education has been organised and a systematic examination of the legislation has been made, the accessibility of components is the greatest hurdle. A number of components are available at the present moment and suppliers are carrying out the development work.

However, in certain areas components are not available. This applies especially to small refrigeration systems such as e.g. supplier-approved (propane) compressors for heat pumps and small commercial refrigeration systems. At Danish Refrigeration Days in 2001, it could be seen that the refrigeration wholesalers have started to include components and aggregates for hydrocarbons.

The Danish Technological Institute has in connection with the present project addressed the refrigeration wholesalers in order to collect information on which components they market for hydrocarbons. Six wholesalers have replied, and the replies show that there are an increasing number of components available. In Denmark, Danfoss A/S will market a number of components and automatic products for hydrocarbons for commercial refrigeration systems at the turn of the year 2001/2002. The replies of the wholesalers were published at a one-day conference on hydrocarbons on 28 November 2001 at the Danish Technological Institute. At Danish Refrigeration Days in March 2002, a paper will follow up on this issue.

Implementation

There is a need for small refrigeration companies to construct and test small refrigeration systems using hydrocarbons in order to practise the implementation of hydrocarbon refrigeration systems. There is a requirement for subsidy for the first systems which will be significantly more expensive that the subsequent systems.

In this connection, it should to be mentioned that the vast majority of the companies are unfamiliar with the new legislation, components and technology and it requires a certain practice before they become confident about building and maintaining hydrocarbon refrigeration systems. In this way, a forced implementation can be ensured.

In addition, it will be necessary (for a period) with external consultancy for refrigeration companies to solve problems, including a hot line for very acute problems.

The refrigeration industry is preparing a plan of action which i.a. takes some of the mentioned-above problems into account.

3.1.4 Industrial refrigeration systems

Process refrigeration

Industrial refrigeration systems are normally very large refrigeration systems used for process refrigeration within e.g. the food industry or the chemical/biochemical industry. In Denmark, traditional ammonia refrigeration systems are used for these applications and this refrigerant has been used for more than 100 years.

Ammonia refrigeration systems

More or less all dairies, abattoirs and breweries have large ammonia refrigeration systems. York Refrigeration A/S (former Sabroe Refrigeration) is the world's largest producer of industrial refrigeration systems, and it is mainly ammonia, which is used as refrigerant.

However, a number of large industrial refrigeration systems use HFC as refrigerant and in most cases, they could have used ammonia as refrigerant instead.

A growing tendency is seen (e.g. in the food industry) in which indirect system solutions are used more and more in order to reduce the refrigerant charge and prevent ammonia in workrooms, etc.

Ammonia is competitive in systems with a cooling performance higher than approx. 150 kW.

In small industrial refrigeration systems (lower than 150 kW), the situation is different. In this case, HFC is used as refrigerant and the situation is similar to that of commercial refrigeration systems and air-conditioning systems.

In the future, water and CO₂ will be used together with ammonia in industrial refrigeration systems. With subsidy from the Danish Energy Agency, a large demonstration system using water as refrigerant has been installed at LEGO in Billund, Denmark. Several industrial refrigeration systems using CO₂ have been installed abroad in i.a. cold storages and for freeze drying of instant coffee.

3.1.5 Mobile refrigeration systems

Mobile refrigeration systems are systems installed in cars, trains, aircraft, vessels or containers.

Refrigerated containers

Mærsk Line

Mærsk/Sealand Line is the world's largest carrier of refrigerated cargo and has approx. 100,000 refrigerated containers operating worldwide.

Previously refrigerated containers were equipped with a CFC-12 refrigeration system, and old containers with these refrigeration systems are still operating. Many of the new containers have been converted to HFC-134a.

Since 1993, all new refrigeration systems have been installed with HFC-134a refrigeration systems. Mærsk Container Industri has a large production of refrigerated containers in Denmark.

The leakage rate for this type of refrigeration system is very high due to the severe weather at sea.

Previously CFC-11 was used in the insulating foam. It has now been substituted by HCFC-141b. It is not known what Mærsk Container Industri will use as blowing agent, when HCFC-141b has to be phased out in accordance with national and international legislation for protection of the ozone layer.

Thermo King Container Denmark A/S in Langeskov, Denmark, produces refrigeration systems for installation in containers.

CO₂

It is problematic to use flammable refrigerants or ammonia in refrigerated containers. CO₂ has thus been suggested as refrigerant, and a development project has been carried out, which has been completed with interesting results. But at present, it is not possible to commercialise the technology, as there is no components (e.g. compressors) available on the market.

Air-conditioning systems in cars

Previously CFC-12 was used for this purpose, but since the mid-1990s HFC-134a has been used.

As Denmark has neither a car industry nor a hot climate, there have not been many industrial activities in connection with air-conditioning systems for cars so far. However, Agramkow Fluid Systems has produced charging equipment for the car industry.

An increasing prevalence of air-conditioning systems is seen in cars and it is becoming standard equipment in medium-sized cars.

CO₂

The car industry is involved in a number of projects with CO₂ as refrigerant. Demonstration systems are constructed for all large car makes, including Toyota, Mercedes Benz, Ford, Renault, Volkswagen, Audi and BMW. Information from the car industry mentions an introduction on the market around 2005. It is not know what the price will be.

Hydrocarbons

It should however be mentioned that hydrocarbons in some countries are used in car air-conditioning systems. This is the case in Australia, where several hundred thousand cars use these refrigerants. It is presumably a hydrocarbon mixture, which is used together with traditional equipment originally designed for CFC-12 or HFC-134a.

Discussions on fire and explosion danger have occurred in connection with use of hydrocarbons in car air-conditioning systems. Hydrocarbons could have been a natural choice as the car already contains several kilos of hydrocarbons already in form of service, diesel oil and propane gas.

Air-conditioning systems in aircraft

Cold air

For many years, air cycle refrigeration systems have been used for cooling of passenger cabins in aircraft. A simple Joule process is used in which the air is compressed and cooled by heat exchange with the surroundings. The air is then expanded in a turbine by means of which it is cooled. The process is not particular energy-efficient, but is used in aircraft i.a. due to the lightweight of components.

Air-conditioning systems in trains

Cold air

In Germany, a project has been carried out in which an air cycle refrigeration system has been developed and tested for trains. The project has been successful and approx. 60 units have been produced for ICE trains.

3.1.6 Heat pumps

A heat pump operates in the same way as a refrigeration system as the heat energy is absorbed from a source (e.g. outdoor air, soil, process water, air from livestock buildings, etc.). At high temperature, the heat is emitted to a heat carrier; e.g. central heating water or supply air for a house.

In the Nordic countries, it is especially Sweden, which installs household heat pumps. It is also Sweden, which produces the largest number of heat pumps. Approx. 25,000 units are produced each year by three large companies and approx. 2/3 of all new houses in Sweden are equipped with heat pumps.

In Denmark, approx. 1,000 and 2,000 heat pumps are installed each year. The total number is approx. 40,000 units.

Liquid/water heat pumps are mainly produced with R407 (or R404A) as refrigerant. Some units are produced with propane (R290) as refrigerant, but it is difficult to find a compressor supplier who will approve hermetic compressors for propane. There are no European owned compressor suppliers for the right size. The producers of heat pumps have to use American or Japanese owned compressor producers, and these have been reluctant to approve propane compressors.

Some heat pump producers have used non-approved R-22 compressors for propane, but this implies that the compressor supplier no longer is responsible for the compressor in case of error. This increases the risk for the heat pump supplier and a systematic error in the compressor can have serious consequences, even though it is not due to the refrigerant. Some large customers have however approved propane as refrigerant.

Discharge air heat pumps are produced with propane as refrigerant. Between 15,000 and 20,000 units have been installed in Sweden since 1996. The refrigerant charge is approx. 400 grams. Some of these have recently been installed in Denmark. They cost between 5 and 10% more than conventional HFC heat pumps, as it depends on one compressor supplier (summer 2001).

Most air/air heat pumps are produced in Japan and use HFC refrigerants. This type of heat pump can normally be converted to air-conditioning. This is however not the case in Denmark as this possibility has to be sealed if it should be subsidised by the state.

In Denmark, Vesttherm (Vestfrost) produces tap water heat pumps. HFC-134a has been used so far, but Vesttherm plans to change this to CO₂. At the moment, Vesttherm and the Danish Technological Institute carry out a development project, which is subsidised by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency.

Industrial heat pumps are produced by i.a. York Refrigeration, and ammonia and hydrocarbons can be used as refrigerant.

Refrigerant charge and leakage rate

A typical liquid/water heat pump contains approx. 2.5 kg of HFC refrigerant, while a typical tap water heat pump contains approx. 0.8 kg of HFC refrigerant. The refrigeration system is hermetic and this results in a small leakage rate.

3.1.7 Air-conditioning systems

Production of air-conditioning systems for housing has not taken place in Denmark so far. It is probably due to the fact that our climate does not necessitate air-conditioning in housing. An increasing marketing of air-conditioning systems is however seen in Denmark (often Japanese systems).

Propane

HFC based refrigerants are used. At the moment, this is the standard for approx. 7 million systems produced in Japan each year.

An Italian producer (DeLonghi) has produced approx. 60,000 small air-conditioning systems with propane as refrigerant. To the knowledge of the Danish Technological Institute, the charge is of a little more than 150 grams.

Ammonia

The situation is different for large air-conditioning systems in office buildings, hospitals, etc. Refrigeration systems (chillers) are installed here which cool water for distribution in the building. The air is cooled in heat exchangers by means of the cold water.

A number of different refrigeration systems are used for this purpose, and CFC and other synthetic refrigerants have previously been used. Ammonia is a very good choice for this purpose, and hundreds of such systems have been installed in Denmark and other Nordic countries.

In appendix C of the report from 1999 on substitution of potent greenhouse gases, a reference list is included with 114 ammonia liquid coolers installed in Denmark by York Refrigeration (former Sabroe) from 1990 to 1998. These are installed in hospitals, large office buildings, industrial companies, airports, the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry and shopping centres.

Due to considerations as to competition, it has not been possible to update this reference list, but York Refrigeration has informed that in 1999, 19 liquid coolers using ammonia were installed and in 2000, 41 liquid coolers using ammonia have been installed in Denmark.

Hydrocarbons

Propane can be used in a similar way in liquid coolers for air-conditioning. York Refrigeration (Bonus Energi AB) has installed approx. 400 systems in Sweden. In Denmark, approx. 15 systems have been installed since 1999.

3.1.8 Low-temperature systems

Low-temperature refrigeration systems have a relatively limited application. Refrigeration equipment is produced which can cool laboratory specimens etc. to very low temperatures.

Heto-Holten

Heto-Holten produces laboratory equipment, including equipment for freeze drying and low-temperature (cryo-) freezers for hospitals, etc.

Normally, the equipment consists of a two-stage cascade system in which the first stage is an R-507 system. The first stage cools to approx. –50°C. The second stage uses hydrocarbons as refrigerant either ethane (R-170) to approx. –80 to –90°C or ethene (R-1150) to approx. –100 to –120°C.

Some foreign competitors use HFC-23 or R508 for the low stage.

It should be possible to use propane in the first stage, and it will hardly change the safety aspects, as flammable refrigerants are already used.

Vestfrost

Vestfrost A/S has started to produce low-temperature freezers down to –80°C. Vestfrost has developed a cooling process in one stage, which reduces the price considerably compared to two-stage systems and makes the product competitive. A refrigerant charge with HFCs is used. Vestfrost has developed a prototype in which a mixture of hydrocarbons is used. This prototype was presented at the exhibition Domotechnica 2001. According to Vestfrost, the prototype operates well. The energy consumption and performance are the same as for the HFC mixture, and the hydrocarbon version can be produced if there is a demand.

3.2 Polyurethane foam

According to the statement of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 241 tons of HFC-134a was used in 1999 as blowing agent of insulating foam (refrigerators, freezers, etc.) in Denmark. In addition to this, 59 tons of HFC-134a and 36 tons of HFC-152a were used for "other", which i.a. is production of flexible plastic foam and special aerosol cans. Generally speaking, the consumption is decreasing.

3.2.1 Insulating foam

In section 3.1.1, it has already been mentioned that HFC is used for production of the insulation in refrigerators and freezers and the alternatives have been described. This application will therefore not be dealt with in this section.

More than half of the production of district heating pipes worldwide is produced in Denmark at ABB I. C. Møller, Løgstør Rør and Dansk Rørfabrik (Star Pipes).

Cyclopentane

Previously this production was large-scale user of CFC and HCFC, i.e. approx. 850 tons of CFC-11 was used in 1986. Hydrocarbons and cyclopentane in particular are now used as blowing agent for the insulating foam.

Approx. 1,500 people are employed at the factories of district heating pipes in Denmark. In addition to this, there are companies, which are employed with pipe laying and construction of entire energy systems, etc. Furthermore, there are companies, which are subsuppliers for the factories of district heating pipes. It is thus an industry of great significance for the economy and employment in Denmark.

At least two companies (D.C. System Insulation and Prepan A/S) produce sandwich insulating panels for cold storages, etc.

HCFC

So far HCFC has mainly been used for this production. But some panels have also been produced with CO₂ added a little HFC for export to Sweden, which has prohibited HCFC panels.

Hydrocarbons can be used as an alternative, including cyclopentane. It will however require a large investment in production equipment. Panels with hydrocarbons are produced certain places abroad. In Finland, e.g. Hurre group Oy and Makroflex Oy produce sandwich insulating panels by means of hydrocarbons.

CO₂ "water blown" foam is another alternative. This foam has however a somewhat poorer insulating power compared to other solutions.

The greatest barrier to introduction of hydrocarbons is a large investment for conversion of the production equipment. The producers in question are small producers for whom it would be a relatively large investment.

It has been prohibited to use HCFC in production from 1 January 2002, and the Danish producers have to use alternative from this date. Prepan A/S has planned to use hydrocarbons, but this has not occurred yet.

HCFC substances

HCFC substances are used for production of refrigerated containers.

The production could be converted to hydrocarbons (cyclopentane). This will however require a great deal of modifications, including safety during foaming with cyclopentane. In addition, it should be taken into account that any deterioration of the insulating power will result in modification of the construction of the containers. Mærsk Container Industri A/S informs that the conversion to cyclopentane can result in a deteriorated insulating value of up to 10%.

The greatest barrier to the introduction of hydrocarbons is assumed to be the drawbacks resulting from production stops, uncertainty of the quality, protection of the working environment and the economic consequences hereof.

There are a number of small producers of polyurethane foam for insulation, which use either HCFC or HFC for several different purposes. It may be expensive for the smallest of these to invest in hydrocarbon technology, as heavy investments are required for fire protection.

CO₂

CO₂ blown foam can be used as an alternative, but it will have a poorer insulating power compared to foam blown with HCFC or HFC. For certain applications, the insulating power is not so crucial. It could be places where the construction implies that there are large thermal bridges or places where temperature differences are not great.

Rigid block foam

Many of the smallest producers of insulating foam have stopped producing the foam themselves. Rigid block foam (rigid slap stock) is used instead which is then cut for the right purpose. Frequently, the foam is only a smaller part of a large complex machine.

Isopentane

There is one producer of block foam in Denmark, i.e. LM Skumplast. Here HCFC-141b is substituted by hydrocarbons (isopentane) for foaming.

3.2.2 Jointing foam

Jointing foam was produced in Denmark until a few years ago (at Baxenden Scandinavia A/S), but this production has now been closed down. In Denmark and other Nordic countries, hydrocarbons have mainly been used in jointing foam since 1987. In Germany and other European countries, HFC is used along with hydrocarbons.

Jointing foam with HFC is however imported for certain purposes. Cans containing HFC foam can be used where there is danger of developing a flammable mixture with air and the use of hydrocarbons therefore is not possible. According to the analysis of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, approx. 10 tons of HFC-134a was emitted in connection with use of jointing foam.

Hydrocarbons cheaper

Cans containing pure hydrocarbon propellant are considerably cheaper than cans containing HFC substances. The propellants have however different properties, so it is not possible to compare the cans on price only. The joint filling material has different properties depending on the propellant.

3.2.3 Flexible plastic foam

In Denmark, there are two large producers of flexible foam i.e. Carpenter A/S (former Brdr. Foltmar) and K. Balling Engelsen A/S.

The majority of the production is "water blown" i.e. a small amount of water is added to the production. Water reacts with isocyanate and develops CO₂, which is the actual blowing agent.

Part of the production has traditionally been produced with CFC-11 and later with HCFC substances as propellant. It is especially soft and light qualities for the furniture industry.

HFC-134a and HFC-152a

In recent years, a mixture of HFC-134a and HFC-152a has been used as propellant for this production.

The other Nordic countries only use foam, which has been blown with CO₂. An agreement has been entered about not producing foam with a density lower than 23 kg/m³, in this way physical blowing agents are not required.

A new technology has been developed abroad, in which liquid CO₂ is used for production of flexible plastic foam in these qualities. The main barrier to surpass this technology is to invest in new machinery.

Carpenter A/S informs that it in the beginning of 2000 has stopped using HFC in the production and has started using liquid CO₂. An English Beameck system has been installed and in this way it is possible to produce light and fine qualities of foam for i.a. the furniture industry. The system costs have been approx. 5 million DKK, but the operating costs on the other hand are a little lower than the HFC technology.

K. Balling Engelsen A/S informs that it has decided to stop using HFC before 2004.

3.2.4 XPS foam

XPS foam stands for extruded polystyrene foam. It is a relatively expensive insulating product, which is used for special purposes. XPS foam is not produced in Denmark, but a good deal is imported from our neighbouring countries. XPS foam is i.a. used for insulation of foundations, below roads and railways, in special purpose machines, etc.

A good deal of XPS foam is imported from Sweden and Norway where three companies each use its own production method: one company uses HFC-134a, another uses HCFC and the third uses CO₂.

3.3 Fire extinguishants

In connection with the global phase-out of halons, some chemical substitutes have emerged; including one based on HFC-227 (e.g. Great Lakes FM-200). These are marketed very intensively across large parts of the world and it has also been tried in Denmark.

Ban on HFCs

In Denmark, the use of halogenating hydrocarbons has however been prohibited for fire extinguishing. Halon-1301 and halon-1211 are excepted, but they are now prohibited like CFC, etc.

Danish companies within fire extinguishing equipment have developed excellent alternative technologies. Inergen can e.g. be mentioned which is developed by Dansk FireEater. It consists of inert gases, i.e. argon, nitrogen and a little CO₂. Inergen can be used for fire extinction in computer centrals, control rooms, power plants, machine rooms, etc.

Ginge-Kerr Danmark A/S has a similar technology called Argonite. It consists of argon and nitrogen.

The technology of using inert gases for fire extinction has been very successful – also at international level. Foreign multinational companies thus market Inergen.

Other alternatives to chemical fire extinguishants are also available, e.g. CO₂ or foam fire extinguishing in machine rooms on vessels, better detectors combined with manual fire extinguishing, etc.

3.4 Propellant in aerosol cans and "foghorns"

Statutory order for aerosols

The statutory order for aerosols of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency prohibits the use of HFC substances in aerosol cans.

However, the ban does not apply to medical aerosol cans or "foghorns", as medical products are excepted, and the statutory order does not regulate the content in aerosol cans, where it is only a gas escaping from the can. But the minister for Environment and Energy has announced a revision of the statutory order, so that it comprises "foghorns".

Medical sprays

CFC-11 and CFC12 are still used as propellant in medical sprays, and in asthma sprays in particular. At the end of the 1980s, the consumption of these products made up approx. 29 tons of CFC substances annually. The products are not produced in Denmark.

For many years, alternative preparations have been available, i.a. powder which the patients themselves inhale into their lungs. It is however not all asthma patients who can do this.

Asthma sprays have been developed with HFC substances as propellant.

"Foghorns"

"Foghorns" with HFC-134a as propellant can be bought. It is an aerosol can with a plastic horn, and the appliance is designed to make a very loud sound.

It is assessed that spectators to football matches, etc. use most of the "foghorns", but they are also used on boats as a "foghorn" to warn other boats.

HFC free alternatives

Greenpeace Danmark has found HFC free alternatives in Denmark. There are several different types, in which one uses isobutane as propellant, while the other uses compressed air and can be recharged at a service station or by means of a hand pump. "Foghorns" with an electrically operated compressor are also available. Finally, manually operated "fog horns" are available which can be blown into or which can be activated by means of a rubber ball.

3.5 Other areas of applications

There is a small amount of HFC in special cans for cooling of electronic components during repair of electronic equipment. When liquid HFC escapes, the piece, which the liquid drops hit, is cooled.

It is possible by means of this method to establish whether the component is defect. The amount is assessed to be modest, i.e. a few tons per year at the maximum. Experience shows that it is difficult to find an alternative, as hydrocarbons may cause problems due to danger of fire from electrical equipment. CO₂ might an alternative. AGA A/S in Sweden and Denmark has prepared a brochure on this, but it is uncertain whether the product is marketed.

A small amount of HFC-23 is used in connection with production of electronic and optical microchips. This issue is dealt with in chapter 5.

The Danish Technological Institute does not have knowledge of other uses of HFC in Denmark.