Working Report No. 34 2006 – Green Technology Foresight about environmentally friendly products and materials - The challenges from nanotechnology, biotechnology and ICT – 5 Nanotechnology development in Denmark

Green Technology Foresight about environmentally friendly products and materials

5 Nanotechnology development in Denmark – environmental opportunities and risks

Maj Munch Andersen with contribution from Stig Irving Olsen and Birgitte Rasmussen^[9]

5.1 Introduction

Research and debate on environmental issues related to nanotechnology mainly focus on risk aspects. There are in recent years rising attentions to ethical, social and environmental concerns related to nanotechnology, making it likely that risk and ethical issues are going to be as important to nanotechnology as it has been to biotechnology. New regulations are considered and a serious of research projects are either coming out these years or are under way around the globe, noticeable the recent report from the Royal Academy (2004) and EC SANCO (2004). These reports have presented some of the so far most comprehensive research into the toxicity of nanotechnology, showing serious concerns related to nano particles.

Nano eco-opportunities are very often referred to in the literature discussing the scope of nanotechnology (but not necessary in the risk or technology assessment literature), often with very high expectations of considerable environmental advantages (Jacobstein, 2001,Wood et al. 2003, Nanoforum 2004, The Royal Society, 2003, 2004, European Commission 2004). These statements are, however, often of a very general and superficial character and more in depth studies are needed both on the scope and the dynamics involved.

The intention of this study is two fold: It seeks to investigate the dynamics of early path creation within nanotechnology; more specifically how environmental issues form a part of the search processes of the various actors in the emerging nano technological field in Denmark. This is in other words a qualitative analysis of the drivers, expectations and learning modes of the Danish nano innovation system.

It aims to identify (map) the eco-opportunities and -risks related to nanotechnology as perceived by the Danish nano researchers. It implies in other words a broad scanning which naturally limits the depth of the analysis of specific scientific and technology developments as well as their environmental implications. On the other hand it offers an opportunity to give a comprehensive picture of where the main innovation activities and search processes in the Danish nano community seems to be heading and by whom (which researchers and companies are involved). The mapping, then, provides the broader context in relation to which the individual innovations should be seen.

The mapping also serves as a tool for networking in the nano community during as well as –hopefully- after the foresight project, as such a mapping of research activities in the Danish nano community has not been carried out before.

This analysis does not seek to discuss how green nanotechnology is or where the best eco-opportunities are. This task makes little sense owing to the very early stage of development and the highly diverse nature of nanotechnology. Since it is hardly yet a technology the uncertainties as to the future development are considerable. Rather, the analysis here focuses on analysing the early path creation and identifying the expectations on eco-opportunities related to nano science. By analysing path creation, the evolving lock-in into technological paths is highlighted. Hereby the directions of the search processes going on are sought captured. These indicate long term perspectives on the directions nanotechnology development may take in Denmark.

An innovation economic perspective is applied in the analysis of the nanotechnology development. Very few such studies at the microlevel of nanotechnology development have been made so far, so there is little analysis to build on or relate to, in Denmark or elsewhere. The analysis builds mainly on an interview based qualitative analysis combined with a broader mail based mapping undertaking within the Danish nano community.

The path creation processes within nanotechnology in Denmark. Focus is on how environmental issues enter into the strategies and search processes of Danish nano researchers and related industry. The identification of nanotechnology eco-opportunities more generally and through case studies.

5.2 Nanotechnology – definitions and dynamics

This section seeks to present and characterize nanotechnology. A few comments are made on the innovation dynamics of nanotechnology and how innovation in nanotechnology is analysed in this report.

5.2.1 What is nanotechnology?

Nanotechnology is an emerging general purpose technology. It is expected to have widespread impacts on society by replacing or influencing existing materials and technologies. The scope of nanotechnology is as yet very uncertain but same have anticipations that it may form the basis of a new industrial revolution, i.e. disrupt and transform the existing technology platforms in line with the steam engine, electrification and computer technology.

Nanotechnology is commonly understood as dealing with very small things. A nanometer (nm) is indeed small, one thousand millionth of a metre. The significance of the nano scale is, however, not only that things are small, but that materials obtain new properties here. This is mainly due to two reasons. First, nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface area. This can make materials more chemically reactive and affect their strength and electrical properties. Second, quantum effects can begin to dominate the behaviour particularly at the lower end of the nano scale, which affects the optical, electrical and magnetic behaviour of materials.

Materials can be produced that are nano scale in one dimension, such as very thin surface coatings. Or two dimensions such as nanowires and nano tubes or in three dimensions such as various kinds of nano particles.

Nanotechnology is the design, characterisation, production and application of structures, devices and systems that entails controlling the shape and size at the nanometre scale.

The size range of nanotechnology is often delimited to 100 nm down to the molecular level (approximately 0.2 nm) because this is where materials have significant different properties. But it is disputed how strict to delimited nanotechnology. The need to integrate with other length scales to obtain wider technology development is emphasized.

Nanoscience is the study of phenomena of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly frm those at a larger scale.

Since the 1990’s the nanotechnology term has shot into the limelight. Research into and even technologies based on nano scale structures is, however nothing new.

What has led to a breakthrough and hence the rise of nanotechnology as a phenomenon is the development of new sophisticated tools to observe, measure and manipulate processes at the nanoscale level. These tools have emerged within the last 25 years. Noticable tools such as STM (scanning tunnelling microscope) from 1982, AFM (atomic force microscope) from 1986 and TEM (transmission electron microscopy), but there are nowadays a range of other tools. Before these tools research and development at the nano scale was experimental trial and error.

The new tools are leading to a greater understanding of and control of processes at the nanoscale and gradually the ability to design materials with specific properties. “Nanometrology”, research into the ability to measure and characterise materials at the nano scale, forms the basis for nanotechnology. Research using and manufacture based on these instruments is then what constitutes the nanotechnological field.

Conceptually the rise of nanotechnology was laid out by the physicist Feynman in his lecture from 1959 “There is plenty of room at the bottom”, foreseeing the possibility to examine and control matter at the nano scale. The term nanotechnology was first used by the Japanese researcher Taniguchi in 1974 referring to the ability to engineer materials at the nanometre scale. The driver was minituarisation in the electronics industry. Already in the 1970s nanostructures were created as small as 40-70 nm using electron beam lithography.

To day much of the research and development is still at the experimental stage (Lux Research 2004, Cientifica 2003).The commercialization of nanotechnology depends on laboratory experiments being turned into large scale, reliable and economic methods. Techniques and specific instrumentation for fabrication, control and measurement at the nanometer scale are under development but face major challenges. Concerning production methods two main routes can be distinguished:

Current commercial nanoproducts are based on top-down approaches while bottom-up approaches are still more, in some cases very, experimental. It is here, though, there are the big expectations of achieving efficient large scale fast production of nanomaterials which may form the basis of an industrial revolution. As yet though bottom-up manufacturing methods have not really materialized meaning that the uncertainty as to the connectivity and future paths of the nano technological field is highly uncertain. In the latter years we are seeing a beginning synthesis of the top-down and bottom-up approaches, a significant stage in the materialization of nanotechnology. Figures 5.1 and 5.2 illustrate some main features of nano production techniques are illustrated.

In many ways nanotechnology is not á technology yet, and perhaps it never will be. It may more be characterized as a a platform technology rather than one distinctive technology entailing a wide range of very different fabrication techniques, as the figure illustrates. Indeed many refer consequently to nano technologies in the plural.

Adding to the confusion as to what constitutes nanotechnology is the multidisciplinarity of the field. Nanotechnology is based on a convergence during the latest century of basic disciplines such as technical physics, molecular biology and chemistry all trying to operate and manipulate at a nanoscale level, see figure 5.3. This common scale of operation and manipulation has opened up for a multidisciplinarity and combination of scientific paradigms leading to new research areas and possibilities for new technology development.

The nanotechnological conglomerate may be divided into the following subsections: nanostructured materials, nanoelectronics, nanophotonics, nanobiotechnology and nanoanalytics, which illustrate the very diversity of the field (Luther, 2004b).

In short, here six characteristics of nanotechnology are pointed to that are important for the dynamics of nanotechnology development (see Cientifica, 2003, Selin, 2004, The Royal Society 2004, Wood and Geldart, 2003, Luther, 2004b):

5.2.2 The nanotechnological development

Currently nanotechnology is hardly a technology. A lot of nano science has not materialised into technologies yet. Major problems remain on how to scale up slow research laboratory work to efficient industrial mass production. But internationally, investments into nanotechnology are rising tremendously, illustrating the high expectations to nanotechnology. There is an ongoing global race to be in the lead in a possible coming industrial revolution, currently with the US in front but Asia also very much on the move and the EU lacking somewhat after.

National and local governments across the world will invest close to $5 billion in nanotechnology R&D in 2004 (35% in the US, 35% in Asia, 28% in Europe, and 2% in rest of the world). Corporations will spend about $4 billion globally on nanotechnology R&D in 2004 (46% by US firms, 36% by Asian firms, 17% by European firms, less than 1% by companies in rest of world) (Lux Research, 2004).

Quite a range of products are already commercial, but mainly on a small scale, mostly based on top-down techniques; e.g. in cosmetics, textiles, paints and electronics, many are used in the automotive industry and mobile phones. E.g. in mobile phones nanotechnologies are used in advanced batteries, electronic packaging and in displays. Numerous forecasts have been made on the future development of nanotechnologies. The uncertainty is considerable but major breakthroughs are expected in a range of areas within the next 5 to 15 years though some developments may have even longer time perspectives (Lux Research 2004, Cientifica 2003).

5.2.3 Explaining path creation in nanotechnology

This analysis applies an innovation economic perspective on the nanotechnological development. Basically, the perspective pursued here seeks to place nano innovation dynamics within an innovation system perspective (Freeman, 1987; Freeman, 1995; Lundvall, 1988, 1992 (ed.); Nelson, 1993; OECD, 2000, 2002). The (national) innovation system perspective (NIS) entails a theory on the co-evolution of institutions, organizations and technology. Hence an innovation system is defined as “those elements and relations, which interact in the production, diffusion and use of new and economic useful knowledge” (Lundvall, 1992)^[10]. The NIS perspective forms today the basis of much innovation and research policy (OECD, 1999, 2000, European Commission, 2002).

A main question is how nano science is going to be caught up by the (national) innovation system when materialising into technologies. Who are the main actors, what are the drivers and what will the stages of development be? The empirical analysis in section 5.4 seeks to investigate the evolving “nano innovation system” in Denmark, i.e. how research institutes and companies interact in the production of nano knowledge under influence of and in interaction with the surrounding institutional set-up.

Nanotechnology is highly science based. Public research and none the least major multinational companies are currently the main drivers of nanotechnology development, (Lux Research 2004, Cientifica 2003). Being a general purpose technology, similar to the steam engine, electrification and ICT, it is very generic and enables other technologies rather than make up products in its own. Nanotechnologies may serve as e.g. raw materials, ingredients or additives to existing products. Even though nanotechnologies may physically only make up a small portion of various product they may in decisive ways influence on their properties. The nanotechnological development is likely to influence on practically all technology spheres but it is a question how much it will complement or replace existing technologies.

General purpose technologies, if materialized, make profound long term effects on the economy, i.e. create long waves in the economy. The gestation time may be very long though, often 30 to 50 years after the early breakthroughs (Freeman and Loucã, 2001). Wider effect on the aggregate economy only materializes in the mature stages of the technology. So far the economic impacts of nanotechnology are very limited. We are still awaiting a possible technological and economic take off following the current massive worldwide investments in nanotechnology.

The infancy of nano technology means that focus here is on early path creation, i.e. the early structuring of the field. Nano technology is very much in the pre-paradigmatic stage. In this fluid phase the uncertainty as to future innovation paths is great. It is uncertain whether the innovation will become a dominant design or not and there is risk of exaggeration. This makes is difficult to persuade other researchers, firms and investors to support the innovation (Teece, 1986, Lundvall, 1985). Creating confidence in a standard based on a trajectory that is hardly understood, such as nanotechnology may easily appear, is naturally associated with great difficulty. Such radical changes are slow and have to await a codification process and gradual acceptance of principles through multiple interactive learning processes between supporters and opponents.

In the very early stages of a technology, the standardisation activities are focused on the creation of a common language. Next, the performance expectations and procedures for inspection, testing and certification are addressed (Reddy et al. 1989). The codification process may possibly be succeeded by changes in education systems and other supporting infrastructure. In this stage there are weak appropriability conditions and imitation is strong. Market leadership is required to advance standards and it is often big players with a strong reputation who break the logjam among rival technologies and pull the complementary assets (technologies and capabilities) together (Chesbrough and Teece, 1996).

If we turn to the paradigmatic stage, as industry standards increasingly become accepted, economies of scale and learning become more important. Imitators with less developing costs and less restricted by asset specificities, rather than the innovators, may come to possess the dominant design and profit from the innovation (Teece, 1986). Since much nano technology is still only nano science or at the early experimental stage we are talking about very early path creation where industry standards are lacking.

Path-dependent learning implies that a research organisation or firm’s knowledge base is theory-laden and upholding inner consistency. The basic argument is, inspired by Kuhn (1970) that technology development, parallel to scientific work, follows certain heuristics. Dosi (1982 p. 152) defines a technological paradigm as “a model and a pattern of solution of selected technological problems, based on selected principles derived from natural sciences and based on selected materials technologies”, (p.152). A technological trajectory is the pattern of conventional problem solving activity within a given technological paradigm; i.e. it is the normal problem solving activity determined by a paradigm (Dosi, 1982).

The technological path (or trajectory) emerges because the technological paradigm embodies strong prescriptions on the directions of technological change to pursue (positive heuristics) and those to neglect (negative heuristics) (Dosi, 1982). The efforts and imaginations of researchers and practitioners are focused in precise directions while they are “blind” with respect to other technological possibilities. A technological paradigm defines an idea of technological “progress” related to the economic and technological trade-offs of a given technology.

Many elements in the innovation system contribute to the “seeding” of trajectories: “Microlevel entities path-dependently learn (and get stuck).., but sector-specific knowledge bases and country specific institutions restrict the ‘seeding’ of the evolutionary process ..... and also channel the possible evolutionary trajectories .... Given the initial conditions and the institutional context, these innovations spread and set in motion a specific trajectory of competence-building and organizational evolution” (Dosi and Malerba, 1996 p.15).

The core question addressed in this study is on studying the directions of the emerging nano technological trajectories and how environmental issues may form a part in these. The perspective suggested here is to analyze nano path creation dynamics by focusing on the shaping of researchers’ and firms’ attention rules, i.e. the routine focus of their research or technological development work depending on their entrepreneurial expectations, (compare Penrose 1956, Boisot 1995) and their search rules, i.e. their routine learning modes (Nelson and Winther, 1982). The formation of attention and search rules is placed within a wider analysis of the organisation of (nano) knowledge production within the innovation system (Lundvall, 1992 eds., OECD 2000).

These aspects will be further discussed in the analysis of path creation in the Danish nano community in section 5.4.

To conclude, there are limitations as to how much can be said about emerging technological paths in nano technology given the current immaturity in technology development and great uncertainty as to the scope of the technology. We know in fact very little at present about how nanotechnology is going to materialize itself.

5.3 Nanotechnology - international findings on environmental risks and opportunities

5.3.1 Environmental risks related to nanotechnology

Until recently there has been very little research into nano related risks. Thus, health, safety and environmental impact assessment of nanoparticles and nano materials is encumbered with huge uncertainties due to lack of knowledge.

There are, however, increasing attention amongst authorities to nanorelated risk issues and several surveys underway around the globe^[11]. In the US national nano initiative, the by far biggest nano research program globally, it is stated that “increasing knowledge of the environmental, social and human health implications of nanotechnology is crucial” (NSET 2003 p.32). In USA, the Office of Research and Development at the Environmental Protection Agency has requested studies to be done on the environmental effects of nanotechnology. French (“ECODYN “) and Asian studies are underway, e.g. in Japan. In its proposal for a European strategy on nanotechnology, the EU Commission (2004b, p. 20) also emphasise the potential risk for human health and the need for research and precaution. A number of research projects on the safety of nanotechnology are being funded by the European Commission within the Fifth and sixth Framework Programme. Among these is the ongoing NANOSAFE project, which assesses the risks involved in the production, handling and use of nanoparticles in industrial processes and products, as well as in consumer products.

The evaluation of risks related to nano particles is complicated by the fact that they exist widely in the natural world already. E.g. resulting from photochemical and volcanic activity and created by plants and algae. Some of these are highly toxic. They have also been created as a by-product by man for thousands of years through cooking and combustion, more recently from vehicle exhausts. The question is then whether manufactured nanoparticles or the use of nanoparticles in new ways present new risks?

The most significant conclusion of the recent/ongoing risk studies is a likely health risk particularly related to free nanoparticles that may penetrate into the brain, lungs and other tissues and possibly cause cancer and other deceases. Nanotubes have properties quite similar to asbestos fibres which raises suspicion of a similar toxicity, (Royal Society, 2004, Nanoforum, 2004, Luther, 2004b, EC Sanco 2004).

Most of the risk studies, however, focus on health and safety aspects while the impacts of nanotechnologies on the environment have not been studied thoroughly yet. The Royal Society report concludes that “there is virtually no information about the effect of nanoparticles on species other than humans or about how they behave in the air, water or soil, or about their ability to accumulate in the food chains” (Royal Society 2004 p.X in the summary). They recommend that until more is known the release of nano particles and nano tubes to the environment should be avoided as far as possible and that a precautionary principle should be applied.

A series of environmental assessment analysis are under way around the globe but so far only few results are available. One of these is an on-going study from CBEN –Rice University examines the behaviour of TiO₂-nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes in the environment with emphasis on the interactions with other chemical species. Following on from this, researchers will work on transport and aggregation of nanoparticles as well as their interaction with biological systems (CBEN, 2004). It has been seen that fullerenes could migrate through soil without being absorbed (Nano-forum, 2004). On the other hand not all nanomaterials were mobile in water. The mobility is very case specific (www.nanotechweb.org, 1. april 2004).

A rare example of a finished study is on the ecotoxicological effects of the carbon molecules called “buckyballs” (fullerenes) showing that these cause brain damage in fish at concentrations of 500 ppb (Oberdùrster, 2004). It matters what kind of nanotechnology we are talking about and how ithey are used. According to Put (2004) the following classification can be used for the purpose of mapping out risks related to nanotechnology:

The above categorization says, however, little about the environmental impact of different nano manufacturing techniques and thereby also of different nanotechnologies and nanomaterials. Of this very little is known so far. The Nanoforum 2004 report states: “Differences in size, shape, surface area, chemical composition and biopersistence require that the possible environmental impact be assessed for each type of nanomaterial. The long-term behaviour of such substances and their effects on elements are thus extremely hard to foresee”.

Table 5.1 summarises the results of an environmental assessment performed in Germany by IÙW on the different nano manufacturing methods, one of the few studies made on this so far. As shown it is anticipated that risk of release of nano particles is low for most productions and uses of nanomaterials. Highest risks occur in work environments when processing airborne nano particles. However, even if the release from materials may be low, a widespread use of nanotechnology may possibly lead to a dispersion of significant amounts of nano particles. We need to know more about the behaviour and potential hazards of artificial nano particles in the environment.

Table 5.1 Nanotechnological products, their probable manufacturing process and their potential hazards.

5.3.2 Environmental impacts in the product cycle

Life Cycle assessment is an environmental management tools for assessing the environmental impacts of a service or function. All use of materials, resources and energy as well as all emissions from the processes in the life cycle are aggregated and interpreted in terms of their impacts on the environment and health, e.g. their contribution to global warming, acidification etc.

As described above specific concern is related to the release of free nanoparticles. An inventory of possible sources of potential particle release from the use and production of nanoparticles can be made by addressing the life cycle from nanoparticle generation to end products and finally disposal. It shall be stressed that due to the variety of different production methods, the process conditions vary widely and thus in principle the risk of potential particle release has to be considered separately for each different process.

The following main steps can cause unintended release of nanoparticles: (Luther, 2004c, p. 44-48):

Nanoparticle production: Processes working at high temperatures or with high energy mechanical forces, particle release could occur in case of loss of containment of the reactor or the mills. The large quantities of nanopowder could be released in a short time into the atmosphere. Moreover, when sealing is broken, reactive mixtures can be put in contact with air and in some cases cause violent exothermic reactions. Failure of collecting apparatus are also important sources of potential release; this apparatus must be able to stop the nanoparticles and to evacuate effluents produced from the processes.

Collection of nanoparticles: Risks are increasing during the collection of nanoparticles particularly in a dry form. When opening collecting apparatus or reactors, nanoparticles can be released and airborne dispersed due to their high volatility. In gaseous atmosphere the behaviour of dry nanoparticles is primarily determined by the balance between attractive and lift forces. Gravity force has no noticeable effect on nanoparticles. Therefore, nanoparticles may be an air contaminant for a long time potentially being an inhalation health risks. When handling small particles the conditions for dust explosions may arise, especially in case of metal powders. Once dust has formed into the proper mixture with air, it can be ignited by energy from various internal or external sources. During the collection of solid nanopowders special care must be taken with regard to ventilation at the working place. Air streams could disperse nanopowders to form aerosols.

Cleaning operations: Nanoparticle release can also occur during cleaning operations of reactors, after the disassembling, when nanoparticles have to be removed from stainless steel pieces, windows or filters. Cleaning is usually performed using solvents or water, tissues, brushes or sponges, which are then discarded in garbage cans.

Handling and conditioning operations: Risks related to this kind of operations can be release of nanoparticles while producing ceramic pieces, particularly when the compressed nanopowders or coatings are formed.

Waste disposal: This includes the total production equipment that has been in contact with nanopowders at the different production steps. Disposal of the waste might be a potential source of nanoparticle release into the environment if no special care is taken with traceability and final disposal or combustion of the wastes.

Final product utilisation: When final nanoparticle based products are obtained, risks depend on the way in which nanoparticles are integrated. For nanostructured materials, nanoparticles are linked to a matrix by a thermal treatment at high temperatures. However, under wearing conditions particle release is likely to occur but dissociation of matter at the nanometric scale is unlikely.

Some of the fundamental features of nanotechnology which are essential for the new opportunities nanotechnology offers may also be a drawback when it comes to risks. We have a natural fear of what we cannot see, cannot control and cannot understand. And this is how nanotechnology may easily appear.

5.3.3 Policy initiative on nano environmental risks

Existing regulation indexing chemicals and measuring new products toxicology need to be adapted to the special properties of nano materials. According to Nanoforum (2004) nanotechnology leads to a need for new norms, standards and testing procedures for assessing risks to the environment and health (e.g. for nanometer length scales, calibration of instruments, health effects of nanoparticles, toxic effects of nanometer size of particles rather than on their chemical composition).

Considerable amount of attention is recently being devoted to the issues of regulation and legislation of risks related to nanotechnology particularly in USA and Europe. However, practical set-up of new legislation or adaptation of existing legislation is still in its infancy. It can be said that most countries and international institutions are still in the phase of raising awareness and investigating what the regulated topics should be (Nanoforum 2004).

The European Parliament's Industry, External trade, Research and Energy Committee has called for a study on the need for new regulations on nanotechnology while the same subject is to be discussed by the UK's Parliamentary and Scientific Committee.

In the nanostrategy of the European Commission from 2004 the following actions are recommended in relation to public health, safety, environment and consumer protection (p.20):

The Danish Nano action plan made by the recent Nano Technological Foresight suggests that there should be a focus on studies of possible health hazards and environmental and ethical aspects associated with nanotechnological industrial processes and materials and other applications of nanotechnology (Videnskabsministeriet, 2004). The Nano Action Plan “recommends that as an integrated part of each individual project, funds should be allocated to research and competence-raising relating to the environmental, health and ethical issues raised by nanotechnology, and that the responsibility for this should rest upon the research environments that receive project funding. Projects should only be granted funding if they address the environmental, health and ethical aspects in a responsible manner” (Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling 2004).

5.3.4 Environmental opportunities related to nanotechnology

There are often very high expectations as to the environmental benefits from nanotechnology in nano reports and policy statements (see e.g. The Royal Society, 2003, Masciangioli, 2002, Nanoforum, 2004, Luther, 2004b, NSET 2003). In fact there are few nano reports if any, which do not mention environmental opportunities as a core benefit of the technology. This is also the case with the recent Danish Nano Foresight report (Videnskabsministeriet 2004). There seems in other words to be an unusual strong linkage between nanotechnology and environmental benefits.

Some of these reports point to some fundamental features of nanotechnology with eco-potentials. E.g Nanoforum (2004), argue that self-assembly, i.e. the attempt of mimicking nature’s intrinsic way to build on the nanometre scale molecule by molecule through self-organisation, has eco-potentials:

“This “assembling” method is extremely efficient and could be helpful for the conservation of nature and natural resources. It is expected that the concept of “self-assembly” could be an approach for a sustainable development in the future. However, such futuristic concepts are far from being realised at present or in a medium term view (Nanoforum 2004 p.39).

“The most relevant effect of nanoparticles for energy applications is the large amount of the atoms exposed on the surface compared to the bulk material. The large surface area leads to a high reactivity with low material use, which is useful for better catalysts (leading to higher reaction rates, lower processing temperatures, reduced emission or need for less material), for improving combustion processes (higher efficiency, lower processing temperatures, or higher absorption rates for light” (Nanoform, 2003, p.89).

The big US National Nano Initiative holds a strong overall green vision: “Nanoscale science and engineering can significantly improve our understanding of molecular processes that take place in the environment and help reduce pollution by leading to the development of new “green” technologies that minimize the use, production and transportation of waste products, particularly toxic substances. Environmental remediation will be improved by the removal of contaminants from air and water supplies to levels currently unattainable, and by the continuous and real-time measurement of pollutants” (NSET 2003 p.32).

Another grand and quite green vision is expressed by a nano roadmap of the chemical industry stating that in the longer term it is hoped that “nanomanufacturing will encompass genuine ”green” concepts of zero waste and little or no solvent use incorporating life cycle concepts of responsible products coupling biology with inorganic materials” (www.ChemicalVision2020.org).

Jacobstein (2001) and Reynolds (2001) pinpoint perhaps most sharply four main features of nanotechnology that are likely to lead to environmental benefits:

Malanowski (2001) referring from the results of a workshop similarly concludes that the ecological benefits of nanotechnology could be very large in the form of:

The claims, as here, are often of a quite general and theoretical character, and many analyses are merely based on workshops rather than thorough analysis. There is a lack of more careful and systematic in depth studies of the extent and nature of the eco-potentials. This is naturally related to the early stage of development of the nanotechnologies and the associated high uncertainty. It seems to be too early to be very specific about where the opportunities are. And/or the eco-opportunities have not been looked into properly so far.

Numerous more specific potential environmental benefits of nanotechnology are pointed to in the literature, though more as examples and visions than an attempt to be comprehensive or to identify the most significant environmental potentials. Some of the frequently mentioned are (The Royal Society, 2003, Masciangioli, 2002, Nanoforum, 2003 and 2004, Luther, 2004b, Antón, et al 2001, Malanowski, 2001, European Commission 2004, NSET 2003):

Overall, the environmental benefits of nanotechnologies are as yet not described in very great detail, and life cycle assessments are often lacking, i.e. investigating the environmental impacts of nanotechnologies over the complete supply chain including disposal.

A few case studies have been made looking more in depth at the eco-potentials of nanotechnology, noticeable a recent German life cycle assessment study (Steinfelt et al., 2004). They have analysed four case studies: Nano varnish, nano innovation in styrene synthesis, nano in the display sector and nano in the lighting sector. The study illustrates that at this point it is very difficult to make high standard quantitative assessments of the environmental impact of nanotechnologies due to lack of knowledge, incompleteness of available data on a given product or process and the high uncertainty as to the future technology development.

The most important recent environment assessment report , the earlier mentioned Royal Society report (2004) does not look into the eco-potentials, except for stating that “it is important to substantiate such [environmental] claims by checking that there are indeed net benefits over the life cycle of the material or product” (Royal Society 2004 p.32). They recommend a series of environmental assessment studies be undertaken on existing and expected developments in nanotechnologies by independent bodies.

Policies towards nanotechnology, e.g. EU’s nano strategy, and the Danish suggested nano action plan, mainly focus on risk issues when dealing with environmental impacts and do not aim to address barriers to eco-innovation. So although the eco-potentials of nanotechnology are highly praised they seem rarely to be promoted by policies. An important exception is the US National Nano Initiative where “Nano Scale Processes for Environmental Improvement” makes up one out of nine Grand Challenge Areas for prioritized research, compare also the already mentioned strong green vision of the research program (NSET 2003).

Interestingly a first international initiative “International Consortium for Environment and Nanotechnology Research (I-CENTR)” has been created recently which looks at both negative and potentially positive environmental impacts of nanotechnology. The consortium studies the environmental applications of nanochemistry, nano-scale materials and processes in the environment, nanomaterial interactions with organisms and environment and generally sustainable ways for nanotechnologies. This consortium gathers approximately 30 researchers from different French and US universities and it is adding groups in Germany, Switzerland and England. Currently the actual extent of nano research and development targeted at eco-innovation is not known^[12]. To conclude, also when it comes to eco-potentials there are many visions and claims related to nanotechnology but there is so far limited knowledge on the more specific potentials of nanotechnologies.

In section 5.5 when focusing on the eco-potentials identified by Danish nano researchers, the eco-potentials will be discussed further.

5.4 Danish findings on path creation in nanotechnology

This section presents the main empirical findings on the role of environmental issues in the search processes of Danish nano researchers and industry. The empirical analysis undertaken is a first scoping study into the actors and dynamics of nanotechnology development in Denmark based on an interview round in the Danish nano community. No prior innovation analysis of this character has been made before, so there is little data to build on or relate to. Given the broadness of the technological field there are limits as to the depth of the analysis possible within this relatively limited project. The emergence of the Danish nano community

In recent years much is happening in the nano area in Denmark. Several new nano research centres and networks are springing up. The biggest ones are Nano•DTU with the major subcentres -MIC, COM, ICAT and CAMP at the Technical University of Denmark, iNANO at the University of Aarhus with links to Ålborg University and the Nano-Science Center at the University of Copenhagen . Some of these have been around for a while, 10-15 years, others are new. Also several transdisciplinary “nano educations” and PhD schools have been established and with great success, despite the general declining interest in the natural sciences among students. At the structural level, then we clearly see the emergence of a nano research community.

These new centres reflect that some Danish funding in the latter years have been earmarked to nano research, last year 60 mio. DKr, making the “nano” term increasingly attractive to researchers but forcing the nano researchers to join groups to apply for the money. There is little tradition in Denmark for large focused research efforts. Recently The Danish Basic research Fund and the new High Technology Fund is changing this somewhat, illustrating a stronger political interest in research and noticeably high technology in Denmark, including none the least nano research. There are therefore expectations of more funding going into the nano field. As an input to the priorities of the High Technology Fund, the recent Danish nano technological foresight has suggested to focus the nano effort into two strong nano research centres with a budget of at least 100 mio. DKr/year. The outcome of these research strategic processes is, however, as yet unknown.

But how much hype and how much scientific novelty is related to this nano trend? The Danish nano researchers generally are sceptical about the hype related to nanotechnology and its implications. To a large degree many feel there is nothing new in nano. They do the research they have always done but now it is redefined as nano.

On the other hand the same researchers also have expectations of nano science leading to greater changes in technology development and for some even expectations of an industrial revolution, albeit of a more evolutionary character. There is, in other words, a widespread sense of novelty and expectations of new industrial opportunities. Quite many, however, express scepticism about the scope of industrial effects, and warn that the hype may lead to too high expectations to nanotechnology and a back lash, especially in the short term.

At the more cognitive level, even though this may not be recognized by the individual researcher, a general conclusion of this analysis is that attention rules are changing as still more researchers, and more hesitantly people in industry, look towards “the bottom” leading to new problem definitions.

And also search rules are changing in important ways. Partly because researchers applying the new nano tools towards their research area are growing new understandings of how the size (of clusters) matters for the properties of materials. Theory building and modelling is replacing trial and error experimentation in a range of areas, eg. catalysis. Partly because of the transdisciplinary nature which is recognized as taking a central role in much nano science. It seems researchers from various disciplines find new grounds to meet at “the bottom” and synthesize their disciplines in new ways.

Danish researchers expect that the major innovations springing from nanotechnology will be related to the boarder areas between different disciplines, especially between biology – learning from natural systems- and physics/chemistry. New more transdisciplinary paths are therefore to be expected. The effect of this, new search rules in various nano related technological areas are, however, only in the making. The uncertainty about the direction of nanotechnological paths at this time is still huge.

In all, there are overall signs of new patterns of problem-solving activities emerging meaning that nano is not only a language (a redefinition of existing practices), it is a technological trajectory, a trajectory that is however, strongly shaped by the expectations associated with the nano hype.

These conclusions are likely to apply generally to nanotechnology and not only to Danish conditions. In fact Danish researchers state that there is no such thing as a specific Danish approach to nanotechnology; it is basic science and very international and regional specialisation is limited. There are of course key Danish competencies and perspectives as we shall return to.

5.4.1 The organisation of the nanotechnological knowledge production in Denmark

Much too is happening on the organisation of nano knowledge production as the field starts to shape up which calls for a deeper investigation. Here only a few preliminary observations will be made.

The Danish innovation system is generally fairly low tech. There is a specialisation on relatively low and medium tech products and an overweight of small companies and few really big companies. Still Denmark belongs among the more innovative economies and is doing quite well, none the least through user-driven innovations and further developments of products, albeit little engaged in radical innovation (Lundvall, 1999, the Innovation Scoreboard 2004). This raises questions as to the potential and conditions for building competencies on nanotechnology in Denmark given that nanotechnology belongs among the most science-based and high-tech technologies.

The Danish Nano Foresight Report especially points to characterization as the core competence within nano science and nanotechnology (Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling, 2004). That is understanding and describing the phenomenon of nature and physics, while there traditionally has been less focus on synthesis that is the use of these understandings for the creation of new materials and other technologies. The core nano competencies identified are within traditional natural sciences such as theoretical physics, quantum physics, optoelectronics, scanning probe microscopi, X-ray diffraction and biomolecules. Measured in publications the Danish nano research is at a medium level seen in an international context, but it is in the top on some areas such as catalysis. It has been less good at translating this knowledge into industrial applications. This is, however, seen as an advantage, as nanotechnology development is taking place closer to the world of fundamental physics research than the traditional industry world (Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling, 2004).

Still, some nano researchers criticize the Danish nano research for being generally too little oriented towards industrial application. A researcher at the Technical University states: “In Denmark nano research is about understanding, modulization and characterization more than manufacturing. What we are in want of in Denmark is a center for the design of nano materials. There are companies around the world becoming rich from selling nano tubes, fullerenes and tailor made materials. I see no reason why we shouldn’t make this in Denmark”.

There are some facilities and companies involved in nanomanufacturing in Denmark. E.g. Danchip is Denmark’s leading facility for micro- and nanotechnology, who uses conventional silicon integrated circuit technology for new areas within micro and nanotechnology. Danchip is a part of Nano•DTU. It has however, not been possible to make a mapping of the Danish nanoequipment and manufacturing facilities in this study.

Innovations based on micro/nano fabrication technology play a rising role over the last few years: “Danish Micro- and nanofabrication points both to applications within telecom and improving the bandwidth of the Internet, but also to new exciting possibilities with lab-on-a-chip applications, where complex diagnoses could be performed directly at the practitioner’s office.” (Professor Jens K. Nørskov, head of Nano•DTU)

The Danish nano research primarily takes place within the main public universities and research institutes in Denmark, compare the mentioned nanocentres and networks, i.e. mainly within the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), the University of Aarhus (AU), the University of Copenhagen (KU) and Risoe National Laboratory, and some what less so at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Denmark (KVL), Ålborg University (AAU) and Southern Danish University (SDU). Also the technical institutes (“Godkendte Teknologiske Institutter”) are to some extent involved in nano research with a strong application orientation.

With one exception research within business so far plays a minor role, although the relatively few big and research oriented manufacturing companies in Denmark to various degrees are involved in nano science and technology development and cooperate with the universities. Most important are companies within catalysis, medico and pharmacy, somewhat less so the advanced machinery and electronics industry and food ingredients. We are talking about in all less than ten big companies who are involved in nano research, and who are in a formal collaboration with universities, often in the form of co-financing PhDs. Some of these companies are, however, quite important to Danish nano research. Several nano researchers express that they miss the local presence of more big companies with strong scientific competencies to widen the opportunities for collaborative research with industry.

The one big company standing out by playing a central role in Danish nano research and technology development is Haldor Topsøe, a world leading producer of environmental catalysts and steam reforming. Haldor Topsøe has 30 years of experience with large scale nano based production within catalysis. Catalysis is a traditional nano scale technology, being well developed through experimentation long before the talk of “nano science” started. Much of Haldor Topsøes research and technology development has accordingly been based on experimentation. The new understandings originating from the rise of nano science the last 10-15 years are only beginning to make an impact on the Haldor Topsøe technology development, and they are still waiting for major breakthroughs resulting from this.

Haldor Topsøe has a very close relationship with the Danish research institutes, especially at the Technical University (Nano•DTU) and University of Aarhus (iNANO), somewhat less also Risoe. The relationships are formal and so close they could be called symbiotic. Haldor Topsøe pursues a conscious strategy of promoting Danish nano research and education, which they see as a necessary investment to them.^[13] They not only collaborate with research institutes but also seek to strengthen these. E.g. in 1987 they took the initiative together with DTU to start the research of Surface Science at DTU. This later materialized into CAMP and later also into the ICAT center in 1999 focusing on catalysis. These and also the new Danish Research Foundation centrer CINF (Center for Individual Nanoparticle Functionality) are very close collaborators with Haldor Topsøe A/S. Halder Topsøe also invests in equipment at the universities, e.g. a new Electron Microscope costing 25 mio. Dkr. It is central to Haldor Topsøe’s competitive strategy to have a better understanding than their competitors of the catalytic processes.^[14]

Haldor Topsøe is characterized by the nano researchers as being unique in its long sightedness and very strong research orientation, originating back to the founder’s strong passion for research. Ib Chorkendorff, head of the ICAT and CINF centre, states:

“A company like Topsøe is different because of the philosophy there, which is very research based. Our competitors in Germany and England for example also cooperate with companies but these don’t have the same interests in research. You can see a difference in the labs. The other catalyst plants haven’t used so much money on equipment; they can’t make the interesting investigations that Topsøe can make. This is what makes them so interesting as learning partners. We can talk to them directly. There are people there doing the same kind of research as we do. It is also interesting for our candidates who can see a career opportunity. This is what makes Topsøe a unique company. The close ties with industry are essential for our research.

He emphasizes the need to continue and strengthen the shift from the trial and error approach to more fundamental research within catalysis in the rising global competition:

“We don’t have a chance to compete with the Chinese who mix lots of potential catalysts over and over again looking for successful candidates. We need to find out what exactly the problem is, look at the physics behind it and then find out something new”.

General contact and cooperation with business various considerable, some nano researchers have hardly any contact, others quite a lot. Industry links are somewhat stronger at the application oriented Technical University and Risoe National Laboratory than at the traditional universities. A new analysis undertaken for the Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation confirm that these two institutes are in the lead in Denmark when it comes to business contacts, spin offs and commercialization of the research undertaken generally^[15]. The large Nano•DTU center seeks consciously to promote technology transfer to companies and has collaborations with around 50 Danish and international companies^[16]. Relations to business seem to be changing. “I see things are changing these years. Fifteen years ago the opinion was that here [at the university] we were to perform research at the highest level and educate people to the highest level, and that wouldn’t be possible if companies were involved. Today university researchers are much more open to interaction with business.” (Researcher at iNANO.) Another researcher at iNANO states: “Earlier we had very little contact with industry, but now [since joining a think tank on nano application opportunities in the food industry last year] relations are very good. It has been quite an eye opener to learn about their needs”.

The Danish nano foresight report mapped 54 Danish companies working with or showing a strong interest in nanotechnology (Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling, 2004). Most of these are small spin-offs from the universities and/or small companies within nano instrumentation and measuring. Additionally, we have the early users of nanotechnology, i.e. the large innovative companies in Denmark, who cooperate with nano researchers on many of their projects. Actual industrial application of nano research is, however, still limited. Generally, the industrial uptake of nanotechnology is very limited in Denmark with the exception of the field of catalysis, in which, as elsewhere in the world, we are still far from widespread industrial application and up-scaling to mass production.

Also company attitudes towards cooperation seem to be changing. When discussing perspectives for a wider industrial nano development in Denmark, Professor Besenbacher, Head of iNANO states: “I am very positive about cooperation with industry. It merely requires openness and a visionary attitude among the leading Danish companies. I clearly sense a considerable interest for nano, an interest which has increased over the past years. I think that the companies gradually realize that universities are leaders in this field, and they thus have a tremendous interest in interacting with us.”

A greater role is, however, expected from the established companies than new ones. Professor Besenbacher states: “The future role played by small start-up companies is yet unclear. The challenge is to go from fundamental blue sky research to industrial production, and with a time horizon of three years, there is no proof of concept, making it difficult to obtain financing in Denmark. It is much easier to attain risk capital in the US”.

A range of small, dedicated nano companies, however, have emerged, as illustrated by table 5.2 in section 5.5, especially within sensors, nanometrology and nanoparticle production. These are typically spin-offs from the universities/research institutes. Their role in the uptake of nanotechnology in industrial production remains to be seen.

5.4.2 The Danish learning relations

The rise of the nano technological field is changing the learning relations in Denmark in important ways. Ib Chorkendorff, Head of ICAT at the Technical University states: “It is not a single or particular event or invention that has happened, which makes nano into something special, because we operate within the same circles as we have done the whole time focusing at the atomic design. If I should say something about the nano hype it is more that it leads to greater fragmentation; because every university wants its own nano centre.The new nano constellations mean that things have become more rigid.

Cooperation between the new nano centres has to some degree diminished, particularly between Århus/Jutland (iNANO), and the research environments on Zealand (especially the Technical University). At the new Nano Centre in Copenhagen they are now also looking towards Sweden (the Øresund region) for new cooperation opportunities.

The new regional nano centres to some degree disturb existing knowledge relations, since the thematic specialisation does not follow the regional clustering closely. In other words nano research into the same themes is performed in more places in Denmark.

All in all, the new nano centres have a marked impact on the organisation of knowledge production, both negative and positive. On the positive side, the new nano centres are valued by the researchers within them, particularly because they facilitate interdisciplinary work. Actually bringing together researchers from various fields on a daily basis creates new opportunities for in-depth, long-lasting collaboration. The interdisciplinary way of working is surrounded by excitement. For example, a project on biocompatible materials at the iNANO centre in Århus bought together a molecular biologist, a physicist and a medical doctor. In the beginning they did not understand each other due to their different scientific backgrounds, but now they are getting somewhere: “It is quite new for us to operate with the interaction between solid surfaces and cells and proteins, but it has opened up completely new possibilities and has been quite exciting”, (Researcher, iNANO centre).

Nano•DTU, the largest cross disciplinary center for nanotechnology in Denmark, was established in 2004 to create synergy between the different research groups working in nanotechnology at the Technical University and use competencies and nanofacilities across departmental walls. More than 170 researchers are members of Nano•DTU, coming from 9 different departments and around 14 different research groups, illustrating the wide research span of nanotechnology.

The nano centres have had a major positive impact on the ability to attract funding, researchers and interest from companies. The iNANO centre, although only 2½ years old, sees a clear advantage in being well branded both nationally and internationally, especially in being more visible to companies.

Generally, learning relations between various departments at the same university/research institutions working with nano seem to be quite strong and are strengthened by the new shared nano profile and the need to join forces to look for funds. Learning relations with international learning partners are also important, especially EU partners in order to apply for EU funding. It is less relevant when it comes to cooperation with industry.

Nano-related research takes place at all Danish universities, at least if we do not define nanotechnology too rigidly. Research outside the new centres have problems in attracting funds and attention, e.g. for researchers at the agricultural university.

Generally, the nano researchers appreciate the nano innovation system in Denmark as it is now: A researcher at iNANO states: “Research today is related to money. We must be able to attract the best researchers and the best equipment. Despite the small amount of funds I believe we can make a difference because we are a small nation. We practically all know each other. The same goes for the industry. The research leaders are scientists whom we know from our common university studies. I can pick up the phone and call, for example, the top people at Lundbeck directly. Our research groups have a non-hierarchical structure, as opposed to the Japanese structure in which two PhDs from different groups are not allowed to talk to each other without the permission of their respective boss. Our openness will be a decisive factor when the interdisciplinary projects are fully up-and-running.”

A researcher at the Technical University says: “At the moment it is excellent to do nano research in Denmark within my field [catalysis]. It is necessary to have a momentum, though, and you need fairly big groups to do this.”

5.4.3 Attention rules and entrepreneurial expectations

The nano research undertaken in Denmark is only partially driven by demand. To quite a wide extent, perceptions of possible application areas related to the research are quite weak. There is, in other words, an absence of entrepreneurial expectations in these cases and very little (technological) direction to the research undertaken.

The drivers for the choice of research focus, for the interviewed nano researchers can be grouped into the following five categories:

- They are driven by an interest in understanding the dynamics at the nanoscale level in various ways.

- They are interested in doing something which has a big technological impact, i.e. which will affect many people (scope) or lead to major change (i.e. the hydrogen society).

- They are interested in solving serious problems, noticeably health care and energy supply, less so environmental issues.

Partly because they are interested in strong local learning partners. Partly because they want to strengthen Danish industry and secure that the public Danish investments in research are turned into value creation in Denmark.

They see regulation as an important driver of research and development, particularly in the energy and environmental area (for the catalysts and energy researchers only).

The limited application approach by some researchers can be illustrated by this statement by an iNANO researcher: “Your end goal is not to make, e.g., a window which is self-cleaning, and then you start from scratch. Through research you suddenly obtain results which you may use to make a window. What we work with is definitely relevant for keeping surfaces clean, whether it is for an industrial machine or a window is up to the industry“.

Another researcher describes the mix of inputs involved in forming the research agenda: “Our ideas rise from interplay with colleagues, and the interaction with Danish and international companies is increasing. I would like to have money for fundamental blue sky research, but it is also satisfying when what you do have applications.”(Researcher from iNANO).

The nano path creation seems to become more pulled and less pushed related to the rise of nanotechnology: Professor Besenbacher, Head of iNANO states: “There is nanoscience and there is nanotechnology. There is no doubt, that what we mainly do is nanoscience. We are inspired by an interest in understanding things at the molecular level. But I feel we are beginning to focus more on possible applications which could become nanotechnology”.

Research at the nano centres at the University of Aarhus and University of Copenhagen seems to be more of a fundamental kind. At the Technical University, the nano research spans from fundamental research to applications. At Ålborg and Risoe there is a greater emphasis on the engineering part of nanotechnology, i.e. making devices.

Several of these researchers express an intererest in doing research that has an interest to Danish industry. For these researchers then, the demand side is quite important in shaping the research agenda also for the more fundamental research, but the demand side being industry rather than consumers.

There is, however, one application area which is a central focusing device. The by far dominating attention by Danish nano researchers is towards medico appliances; perhaps as much as 80 pct (a rough estimate) of the research is in some way oriented towards medico. This goes for all nanotechnology areas, i.e. nano modified materials or composites, functional surfaces, sensors etc. where it could be feasible. These research areas, then are very little oriented towards other applications, despite the fact they often have very wide application potentials. Issues such as biocompatibility, bacteria detection, antibacterial surfaces and drug delivery are at the center of most Danish nano research. A researcher at iNANO explains: “The research funding is so that we hardly have any basic funds for research, so we must find suitable projects. You must define an application area when you apply for research grants, so you need to state something. Nanotechnology is expensive and you thus have to become engaged in high value areas such as medico”.

The medico focus is so strong that it is not contested. It is the routine focus of most Danish nano researchers, so certainly we are talking about strong attention rules here. Naturally it is important here that Denmark has a very strong medico industry with some of the biggest players in Danish industry.

Three other application areas are important, but they all spring from the same competence, catalysis. The core Danish competencies in this area means that chemical production, hydrogen production and fuel cell research and environmental catalysts (heterogeneous catalysis) are important research areas, particularly at the Technical University, Århus University and Risoe. At Risoe, the declared research strategy of the laboratory is energy production, so here most nano research is somehow related to energy production, e.g. new materials for windmill wings or organic solar cells. Even here there is quite some medico oriented research too, though.

”We don’t just pick up a new theme. You need a critical research group before you can start a new project” (researcher at iNANO).

“Indisputably, we carry out outstanding research in the catalysis area. There is a fantastic dialogue between the research environments and the company Haldor Topsøe. Here we have all the preconditions for being successful” (Professor Besenbacher, Head of iNANO).

“We have succeeded in Denmark in making a really healthy combination of fundamental science and developing new products coupled to companies, especially Topsoe. Many countries would like to copy this Danish model; e.g. the US Department of Energy invited me over when they were going to develop a new strategy for their catalysis research. So I think we have a rather unique situation.”

But expectations in the medico area are high too. Professor Bjørnholm, head of the Nano-Science Center at the University of Copenhagen states:

“I believe that the biggest potential is in bio nanotechnology where we have a really good basis in Copenhagen. It is mine and Tue Schwartz’ [professor at the medical university in Copenhagen] vision that the platform created through biotechnology known as Medicon Valley in the Øresund [Baltic] region should be further developed with nanotechnology. In ten years we will have a strong nanotechnological medico hub here, propably the only one in northern Europe.”

Also the field of energy technology is seen as a central emerging competence within nano research in Denmark. “Denmark has an outstanding position for contributing to the development of new nano-based technologies in connection with hydrogen as a fuel. The knowledge base at Nano•DTU and at Risø is outstanding and several small and larger companies hold key positions in the field. This is true in hydrogen production where Topsøe are world leaders, it is true for fuel cells where Risø, DTU, the companies Topsøe and IRD fuel cells and other players are strong in various subfields, and it holds in hydrogen storage. Here DTU and Risø are very active and where a new start up is just beeing created by Nano•DTU researchers. Nanotechnology is at the heart of hydrogen technologies since nanoparticles are the workhorses in all the energy conversion processes" says Jens Nørskov, director of Nano•DTU.

In the suggested Nano Action Plan of the Danish Nano Foresight seven high-priority areas within nanotechnology were identified (Ministereriet for Videnskab, teknologi og udvikling 2004). Within these areas it is suggested that Denmark should built its core competencies in order to obtain a translation of nano science into industrial application, achieve increased growth and employment, and make solutions for important societal needs (in non-prioritised order):

Nano medicine is the only application area highlighted, the others are more fundamental nanotechnologies which cover quite a broad spectrum of the nano technological field. Environmental issues are not particularly addressed but catalysis and hydrogen technology, existing strength holds, are.

5.4.4 Attention and perception of environmental issues

Core Danish competencies, those related to catalysis, are strongly related to environmental issues in the form of environmental catalysts for gas cleaning (heterogeneous catalysis). Haldor Topsøe holds 70 pct. of the world market in this area. Given this core Danish competence there is surprisingly little spread to other environmental areas from the Danish nanoresearch. There is in fact very little “environmental nanotechnology” (termed this way by a researcher at the agricultural university), where environmental issues are defined as a target or application area for the nano research. Clearly the majority of the interviewed nano researchers had not or only vaguely considered the possible environmental applications or the implications of their nano research.

The relationship between nano and environmental issues is seen as quite weak by the nano researchers. “On the face of it there is only little overlap between environmental issues and what we do. Our work is very medico-oriented”, (iNANO researcher).

“I do not think the linkage is very strong. I have been in biology for many years and I have regarded the Ministry of the Environment as a closed system. It hasn’t been a part of my world. They have had their own agenda and have run this internally and financed their own institutions through all kinds of small technology programmes. For that reason my thoughts on the environment have not been directed towards that part of the environmental world. Of course it has been part of the overall perspective, and an extra bonus, to make something environmentally friendly, but we have not directed our research towards the interaction with environmental companies or the ministry, or anything like that”.

The linkage between environmental researchers and the environmental industry and nano researchers is also quite weak; seemingly there is a lack of attention both ways: “The group of nano researchers is made up by molecular biologists, physicists and chemists. I think that the people who really work with environmental issues, e.g. waste water, have no knowledge of nanotechnology. That means that they can not see the opportunities in this technology. At some point when we get the nano ball rolling they too will hear about nanotechnology, and I think the opportunities of cooperation will turn up at that point”, (Professor Besenbacher, Head of iNANO).

An employee at the company Alfa Laval (producing various membranes for handling pollutants), state that they do some nanotechnology, but they just don’t call it that. They are interested in nanotechnology but have limited contact with the Danish nano researchers, but follow biotech research more closely.

Professor Besenbacher, Head of iNANO, emphasizes the importance of maintaining a good nano image: “When we start a new project the first thing we say is not: ‘Now we are going to find a nano project which also has an environmental aspect’. It does not work that way. On the other hand, as we discussed the opportunities for the biosensor and oestrogen projects [directed towards curing cancer and hormone disturbances], I think I said that these themes were brilliant, because if we were to succeed with the projects there is no doubt that they would give us considerable PR. It would be something everybody can relate to.”

For many catalysis researchers the situation is quite different. They see a close linkage to environmental issues. For example, Ib Chorkendorff, Head of the ICAT (catalysis) center, Nano•DTU, sees the environmental aspects of his catalysis research as a clear advantage. “We seek solutions in technologies and the environmental area is an area where every body would like to see improvements. In that way we are also opportunists. You have to find funding where it is which is easier than if we researched an area without national industry and national interests.”

The very strong Danish competencies on environmental issues generally and the strong competencies in catalysis might make us expect that Danish nano researchers were attentive to environmental issues and were working more broadly with these. But that is not the case. In fact there are only a handful of Danish nano researchers whose research aim specifically at environmental issues, outside the heterogen catalysis and energy production. These researchers are typically in the periphery of the Danish nano research environment, i.e. not within the big new nano centres and mostly only working with nano science to a limited degree. They are situated at institutes working with environmental issues or areas related to this (the agricultural university, the building institute at the Technical University), where they to some extent apply nano science and nanotechnology in their research. There is a niche though at the Geological Institute, University of Copenhagen University of Copenhagen, where a small group at the NanoGeoScience Center works on environmental nano research, particularly on waste and clean water issues. These have links to environmental researchers at the agricultural university and the Technical University but only weak links to the Copenhagen Nano-Science Center.

There are some nano researchers who do some (minor) environmental projects as a part of their research. And then there is a large group, in fact a great amount of the research undertaken, whose research could have some or even major environmental impact, but where this is not the focus or driver of the research undertaken. E.g. research into new lighter, stronger, or less energy demanding materials, or research into self-cleaning or anti-fouling surfaces, research into detection of harmful substances. Section 5 on identified eco-opportunities will highlight these further.

To some degree these researcher recognize the environmental potential of their research but mostly very vaguely and typically as something they are not used to consider. E.g. a researcher of composite nanopolymers which are very light strong materials which could replace e.g. energy demanding or rare metals) state that he has a very pragmatic approach to his research and does not really know anything about the environmental potential (researcher at Aalborg University).

There are no specific environmental nano research programs (again excluding heterogenic catalysis). There is no research which aims specifically to substitute harzardous, rare or energy intensive materials. Or to build long lasting products (self-repairing, anti-corrosive, hard etc. Or to reduce resource consumption (through minituarization, targeted resource use and efficient chemical processes). All issues which are highlighted as environmental potentials of nanotechnology as discussed earlier.

The lack of environmental orientation also showed itself in the problem experienced during the foresight project in findings speakers able and willing to talk about eco-opportunities related to nanotechnology for the innovation workshops and conference planned. Obvious candidates were difficult to find and many nano researchers were hesitant of the environmental topic.

The general crude picture on green attention and search rules from the Danish investigation is that researchers at DTU, the agricultural university and Risoe are more environmentally oriented than at the pure and more basic research universities Copenhagen, Århus, Aalborg and the University of Southern Denmark. In the former the medico orientation is less strong and the search space is broader. Also, at the DTU, there are strong competencies on environmental issues and technologies, in part in some of the institutes dealing with nano research (the Center for Sustainable and Green Chemistry at the Department of Chemistry,and Department of Manufacturing Engineeering and Management, IPL). These are both part of Nano•DTU which to some degree facilitate a cooperation between the technical environmental researchers and the nano researchers here. There are, however, apart from this limited links to other core environmental researchers and the nano researchers here. Risoe has a formal key research focus en renewable energy technologies meaning that an environmental agenda is somewhat present.

All in all it seems that links between policy makers, researchers and industry in the environmental area and the new main nano research centres generally are weak.

5.4.5 Environmental search rules and risks

Generally, most Danish nano researchers are concerned about the potential environmental risks related to nanotechnology. Concerns are predominantly directed towards and restricted to the possible toxicological effects of nano particles. There is clearly a concern that public attitude towards nano may become negative as in the case of GMOs, and that it is necessary to safeguard the reputation of nanotechnology.

A few researchers also point to a possible waste and recycling problem from nanotechnology. For example, a researcher from iNANO states:

“You put a lot of technology into a range of small things, and there may be a problem in collecting and recycling them again, like with rechargeable batteries. With nano products you can not see if there is anything dangerous in the pen when you throw it in the bin; you do not know what you are holding in your hand.”

The concerns of the Danish nano researchers are in line with recent international studies on nano environmental risks as discussed in section 5.3.

It seems that the risk concerns are of quite new date or at least have been strengthened recently, partly because of the rising international debate following recent research projects, going into more depth with the risk aspects than has been the case before. But it also seems that the recent general Danish nano foresight report, which included risk aspects, has been an eye-opener to many Danish nano researchers when it comes to risks issues related to nanotechnology. In fact that is one of the main conclusions of the foresight report. Before, the majority of the nano researchers had not been concerned with or considered risk aspects of nanotechnology (Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling, 2004). A few nano researchers still state that they see no environmental risks associated with nanotechnology, but that there are some ethical issues to consider.

Even though risk aspects are quite recognized, little attention is generally paid to the question of how green/clean nano production is or could become, i.e. green search rules are lacking or are insufficient. Quite many of the nano researchers interviewed lack competencies on environmental issues. They had difficulty discussing environmental issues in a systematic way and relating it to the product cycle, i.e. discussing the resource and energy use, toxicity, waste and recycling aspects related to their nano research. For example, a researcher at the Copenhagen Nano-Science Center states: “Organic electronics is a huge area in rapid development and Denmark should get going here. But if it has got something to do with the environment…I don’t know if computers pollute?… An organic computer becomes CO2 and water. I guess computers belong at the bottom of environmentally pressing problems?”

All in all there are no implications that the rise of nano science with its more transdisciplinary search rules nurtures any environmental orientation or competence building so far.

At Haldor Topsøe things are quite different. Keeping up a strong green profile is important to their competitiveness nowadays. They keep a close eye on developments in environmental regulation globally, especially on chemicals, both for spotting market opportunities for their environmental catalysts, but also to handle the chemicals they use themselves properly. Their production is nowadays quite clean, they have e.g. a closed water circuit, but this has nothing to do with nanotechnology. They use hardly any catalysts in their production themselves.^[17]

There has been no Danish research into environmental impacts of nanotechnology. An iNANO researcher points to the problem of timing the societal concerns and dialogues: “It is difficult to research [in risks] because we have not defined the problems yet. We are all in the process of developing nanotechnology, and if it turns out that there are environmental consequences we must look into that;, but it is difficult to start looking into things until you know what the problem is.” Similarly, Professor Besenbacher, Head of iNANO, states: “I am more in line with the American way, and say, OK we do this fundamental research and when it is done we draw a line in the sand and ask: what then, are there any side effects?… We need to investigate further the toxicological effects of especially the nanotubes which may be dangerous. Today we don’t have sufficient scientific evidence to say whether it is dangerous or not. And that needs to be looked into just as you do with heavy metals in paint…The day you see a problem you have to direct regulation towards it. But I can’t relate to an attitude saying that something as a starting point is a problem.”

The committee behind the recently finished Danish nano foresight report held a small hearing with a group of citizens about their expectations and fears related to nanotechnology (Ministeriet for Videnskab, teknologi og udvikling, 2004).The main conclusions were that there is a desire among the public that nanotechnology should be used for purposes that give benefits with due regard for people and the environment. Examples include pollution control, climate change, poverty in developing countries, and disease. The responsibility for possible adverse consequences of nanotechnology and the applicable legislation for handling them must be precise and visible. It is important that applications that are evidently dangerous should be halted or subjected to regulation with strict toxicological control in order to maintain confidence that the widespread use of nanotechnology will not have undesirable consequences.

5.5 Danish Nano Eco-innovation potentials

This section seeks to outline the eco-innovation potentials identified by Danish nano researchers both more generally and through a number of case studies.

5.5.1 Overall identified eco-potentials

When asked about nano-related eco-innovation potentials the Danish nano researchers particularly pointed out three areas: 1) Energy production (hydrogen society), 2) catalysis as a source of gas cleaning as well as resource and energy efficient chemicals production, and 3) sensors as a source of more resource efficient production processes or products. Of the three, the energy production was by far the one which was attributed the greatest environmental impact by most of the researchers, and also the issue they knew most about.

The overall impression is that all Danish nano researchers have some kind of or even quite high green visions related to nanotechnology, but mostly at a quite general level. An iNANO researcher states: “We need to scale things down to have enough resources when the Chinese start using computers, or else everything will break down. At the nano scale all processes are faster, also the computer communication. The same goes for chemical reactions. Things become more efficient”.

Most Danish researchers thus acknowledge various eco-innovation potentials related to nanotechnology and their own nano research, although very few actually research into this.

Table 5.2 seeks in a dense form to represent a first mapping of all the eco-potentials identified by the actors in the Danish nano community. The table shows key-nanotechnologies and their eco-potentials, as well as the main Danish nano researchers and companies involved. Also the development stage and Danish competencies (the international position) of the technology/research area are shortly stated.

Large parts of the Danish nano community have participated in the making of this lists through several mailing rounds as well as being presented as background material for the three workshops held as part of this foresight report. The findings have in this way been subjected to some scrutiny within the nano community. Overall, the table represents quite rigorous data.

The list is quite long, despite the limited attention to environmental issues in the Danish nano community. It should be stressed that the table is illustrating eco-potentials, i.e. research that could lead to new environmental solutions, even though environmental applications may not be the target of the research. In the table these issues are sought illustrated by shortly indicating the current and potential application field of the technology. This is in some cases quite difficult since the field of application can be very broad when we are dealing with a very fundamental technology (e.g. new nano porous materials, or new synthesis of nano particles). On the other hand, it is important in a foresight exercise to seek to point also to the more long term or novel possibilities and not only those lying straight ahead or which have obvious environmental potentials seen from the way we consider environmental problems to day. Some of the more radical or systemic environmental opportunities may well lie in the more fundamental technologies or insights from nano science that may open up for new technological development paths.

The table represents the eco-opportunities as identified by the Danish nano researchers. The claimed eco-potentials have not been subjected to great scrutiny in this project, the considerable amount of suggestions alone makes this impossible. The purpose is not to identify those innovations with the highest environmental potential, but merely to make a first scoping study of the possibilities and visions. The table may be said to illustrate the nano researchers’ entrepreneurial expectations on eco-innovations. For a great part of the nano researchers participating, considering the eco-opportunities of their research was clearly a new experience. Therefore it has also been difficult for them to be very specific about the environmental potentials of which they know little. The table therefore represents an attempt at identifying the hitherto unknown/unrecognized eco-opportunities as seen broadly in the Danish nano community. In a sense this exercise has highlighted but also created new (eco-) entrepreneurial expectations, similar to the innovation workshops held during this project. The list then is a list of possible interesting eco-opportunities, not identified main solutions to specific environmental problems.

Minor subtechnologies are indicated with an “-”. The grouping has been made in a dialogue with the Danish nano researchers.

The table also seeks to illustrate the diversity of the nanotechnological field and the great variety in development stage between the different research areas and technologies.

It goes beyond this study to go into a discussion of all the many technologies listed, their eco-potentials and industrial potentials. A few of the examples are discussed more in depth in the case studies in the succeeding section (marked with an “*” in table 5.2).

5.5.2 Eco-potential qualification

The main conclusion of table 5.2 is that Danish nano researchers identify a very wide range of eco-potentials connected to key nano research areas. Many of these potentials have also been pointed to in previous studies and workshops, compare the discussion in section 5.3 on international findings. But table 5.2 offers a more comprehensive list with more details related to concrete research areas and technologies than has been carried out before. It should be remembered that the list reflects the Danish identified potentials and refer to Danish nano competencies only. In other countries the picture may look different. There is e.g. no photocatalytic research for water cleaning in Denmark, which is often highlighted as one of the big eco-potentials of nanotechnology.

The technologies pointed to overall indicate that there are some intrinsic features of nanotechnologies that may facilitate eco-innovation within a wide diversity of nanotechnologies, as others also have argued, compare section 5.3. The table operates with eleven different main research /technology areas and identifies in all 39 research areas/technologies which could offer eco-potentials. These can be further grouped into four main groups, representing different ways of contributing with environmental benefits: The table illustrates numerous examples of how nanotechnologies imply new opportunities for making more tailor-made, targeted, sensitive, integrated and intelligent products, in short smart tailored products. Combined with the opportunities nanotechnology offers for making completely new materials, which are thinner, lighter and stronger or possess new properties, nanotechnology may well provide a platform for a more resource efficient economy. Finally energy production must be mentioned as the third area and improved environmental remediation and cleaning as the fourth area where nanotechnologies may have considerable positive environmental impacts. These will be discussed further below.

This is not to say that the mentioned nanotechnologies are resource efficient per se and will solve the environmental problems if widely developed. The environmental benefits depend very much on how the technologies are being applied and how they feed into and possibly affect overall consumption patterns. Currently most of these research areas and technologies are not being developed with environmental benefits in mind in Denmark so the eco-potential may not be explored. Lacking knowledge especially of the research areas at the early stages of development means that the specific environmental benefits are difficult to assess particularly considering the broad application area of most nanotechnologies.. Because nanotechnologies are enabling technologies many of the environmental effects will be widespread but of a more indirect character. They will often be integrated in (and thereby change the properties of) other products and materials and their effect must be seen in combination with these. In the following the eco-potentials will be discussed more in depth, referring to the box numbers of the table above.

5.5.2.1 Smart tailored products

The eco-potential of smart tailored products relate, roughly speaking, to the research areas:

Alone functional surfaces are represented by nine very different technologies, some at a commercial stage, some very experimental. Quite many Danish nano researchers are occupied here in this very fundamental nano science discipline, where Denmark possesses quite strong competencies. Company involvement is, however, somewhat limited so far. The eco-potentials are considerable because of the potential widespread application, and varied though application today is primarily medico oriented. There are a few examples of current commercial environmental applications with self lubricating surfaces used in industrial production saving resources (see no.15), energy efficient windows through nano coatings (see no. 19 and 20) as well as three examples leading to less chemical and water usage in the case given in the succeeding section.

Catalysis, the core Danish nanotechnological competence, leads to more resource efficient chemicals production as will be discussed further below.

Polymer electronics/photonics represent radical innovations in the for the global economy crucial electronics industry. Polymer electronics is a small new niche in Denmark as well as globally with interesting perspectives and some industrial activity. But considerable technical problems remain, though some commercial products exist. The eco-potentials may be considerable, because radically new types of electronic products may be developed. In most cases polymer electronics offer environmental benefits mainly in the form of energy efficiency, see noticeable the LED case below (no.9), possibly one of the nanotechnologies with the biggest immediate environmental potential.

Monitoring and diagnostics represent one of the biggest nano research areas in Denmark when it comes to numbers of researchers and it is also here we find most nano dedicated companies, primarily small start up companies. The identified technologies (pervasive sensoring with sensors and tags, lab-on-an chip and biosensors, (see no. 10-12) might facilitate continuous and real-time measurement and diagnosis of environmental parameters in a way that has not been possible before. The environmental potential of this element alone may be contested, but used in combination with other intelligent (nano) products and materials it may contribute in important ways to greater resource efficiency. The application orientation today is, however, primarily medical. There is though an example of sensors for pesticide detection (see no. 10). The environmental monitoring industry in Denmark is only beginning to take an interest in nanotechnology^[20].

5.5.2.2 New materials

According to professor Hviid Christensen, Center for Sustainable and Green Chemistry, DTU, and among the environmentally most competent nano researchers in Denmark, the biggest eco-potential of nanotechnologies lies in the possibility of making completely new nano structured materials. All modern materials science to day is based on nano science, so in this sense the innovation potential attributed to nanotechnology is considerable^[21]. The three material areas in the table are:

The nano particulate and nanofibrous materials group illustrate some of the most fundamental nano science research and development. They feed into a great amount of nanotechnologies. Basically, the further development of many nanotechnologies depends on the advancements in the ability to and efficiency of making nanoparticles. The importance of this field underlines the necessity to look into the entire innovation food chain of nanotechnologies to enhance nano-innovation. Improved synthesis of nano particles (see no. 31 and 32) and forming nano particles into meshes, wires or colloid constructs to obtain materials with new properties (see no. 30) illustrate this point. In the section below is a case on new super critical nano particle synthesis showing considerable improvements in energy efficiency, speed and quality of the manufacturing technique compared to the hitherto practiced much slower sol-gel method. The company SCF Technologies involved is the only Danish company working with the manufacturing of nanoparticles. Also biomimetic materials (no.33) represent an interesting potential for making completely new materials mimicking the efficient production methods of nature.

Nano poreose materials similar make up a very important and fundamental element of nanotechnologies and are used in a range of nanotechnological devices. This nano research strives basically to make homogenous nanoscale holes in a material. The table illustrates 5 different ways, which gives rise to very different material properties and a wide range of application areas. The eco-potentials are considerable, e.g. improved membranes and better catalysis, and novel solutions for insulation, cooling and energy conversion (no. 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29). Some of these applications are commercial, others experimental and currently very costly but could have major eco-potentials if they reach commercialisation.

Within the composite materials research, the nano research related to the development of bioplast is one rare example where environmental aspects form an important part of the goals and search rules. The whole justification of bioplast is environmental issues in the search for plastic with less waste problems and based on renewable resources but using biomass. Bioplast research in Denmark is only a small niche though. Nano composite materials such as fibre reinforced polymers are generally very interesting from an environmental point of view because they make up lighter, thinner and stronger alternative materials to e.g steel and other metals to be used e.g in transport to save energy and material use as pointed to in section 5.3. This research, however, has limited environmental application today in Denmark. An exception is research and development into composites for the replacement of glasfibre in windmills, partly to develop better wings, partly to reduce the huge glasfibre waste problem of the big Danish wind mill industry.

5.5.2.3 Energy production

As mentioned the Danish nano researchers point to energy production as a core eco-potential of nanotechnologies. Certainly if alternative energy systems to fossil fuels were developed a large part of the environmental problems would be solved. The strong Danish catalysis competencies means that we have a good basis for contributing to the development of hydrogen based energy systems. Interestingly the Danish catalysts researchers have all moved into the related hydrogen fuel cell and storage research within the recent years, both at DTU, iNANO and Risoe and also at the company Haldor Topsoe. There seems to be a shared long term interest for realizing a hydrogen economy, in which the possible environmental benefits play an important role. The technical problems remain considerable, though and prospects are long term and uncertain. The catalysis case below illustrates recent innovations here. Other potentials within the energy area are improvements in energy conversion, the mentioned improved materials for wind mill wings and an interesting new niche in polymer based solar cells. The latter is an example of a nanotechnology which is at a very early experimental stage but which could have a huge innovation and eco-innovation potential if commercialization is realized. The high uncertainty as to the scope of this technology makes it very difficult currently to assess possible environmental benefits.

5.5.2.4 Environmental remediation

This area represents what professor Hans Christian Bruun Hansen, at the agricultural university calls “environmental nanotechnology”, where nanotechnology is used directly to reduce the amount of and the handling of pollutants. The techniques pointed to are catalytic efficient cleaning of gases (no.2,3,4), remediation through use of functional nanoparticles (no.6), more efficient bioseparation (no.5) through tailored membranes and controlled release of e.g. pesticides, nutrients and growth regulators into soil (less resource use and emission) (no.7). The latter shows how understandings of nano scale processes in the soil may be used to find novel environmental solutions.

The most novel suggestion is the use of functional nano particles (no.7) (synthetic particles or modified minerals) for binding and degrading pollutants in soil and water, waterworks, waste treatment facilities, nuclear waste storage areas, etc. Such technologies are to a limited degree already in use (see the case below on “Nat-nano-mats”). Here the importance of new, nanoscience based understanding (rather than devices) of vital nano scale processes in the environment are emphasised for finding optimum solutions to environmental problems and the construction of risk assessment models (according to Susan Stipp, GeoNanoScience Center at the University of Copenhagen).

The Danish core environmental competence within heterogeneous environmental catalysis distinguishes itself as a well-established technology (no.2). In the western world existing heterogeneous catalysts are already generally well applied. At Haldor Topsøe they state: “I don’t think there is any material today which you cannot remove one way or the other but there are still many regions where it could take place. It is a question of the will to implement the existing processes where the problems are”.^[22]

At Haldor Topsøe they see the biggest remaining eco-potential in spreading the environmental catalysts to Asia, Eastern Europe and the rest of the developing world where there are rising huge markets for environmental technologies. In these regions environmental catalysts are now only limited applied. At Haldor Topsøe there are no expectations of major innovations in the environmental catalysts originating from the new more scientific (nano) understanding, but of more smooth developments with continuous increases in efficiency. The same goes for the catalysts used in chemical production where innovations leads to still less energy use and less chemical waste, compare the resource efficiency discussion above related to the smart products discussion (no.1). They are still facing challenges of linking up the traditional experiment based production at the production facilities and the nano science research of their R&D department. Upcoming stricter regulation on sulphur emissions means that major innovations in their environmental catalysts are necessary and they are working towards this.

The catalysis competencies are recently being applied in new directions (see also the hydrogen discussion in the energy paragraph). Catalyst researchers at both DTU and Haldor Topsøe are now moving into diesel cleaning where new regulation is coming up (see no.3). For Haldor Topsøe this is quite a new strategy since the mobility sector is a completely new type of market (much smaller users) for them where they are now specialized on big users. See also the diesel/hydrogen case below where Haldor Topsøe, though, is not involved. Also new research is undergoing within electrochemical cleaning of gases where electricity replaces chemicals (no.4).

The 6 case studies in the succeeding section represent examples of a more detailed discussion of both innovation opportunities and environmental impacts.

5.6 Environmental assessment - system expansion or system substitution

An important aspect to consider in the evaluation of environmental benefits and risks is whether the developing technology will meet the needs of society in a new more environmentally friendly way or whether the technology creates new needs that may either reduce or increase pressure on the environment. No definite answers can be given for an emerging technology but some considerations can be given both in general and for more specific potential application areas. Here the general aspects are dealt with based on the high-priority technology areas pointed in the recently suggested Danish nano action plan (Ministeriet for Videnskab, tecknologi og udvikling 2004). These are as mentioned:

Current deliveries of drug could be more efficient in terms of either being more specific in targeting the relevant receptors in the body or in releasing/dosing more correct amounts of medicine. Such developments could lead to a substitution of current drug delivery techniques resulting in less use of medicine and possibly less releases to the environment. It may also lead to expansion of the areas in which the medicine is used and perhaps thus to a more widespread use of the medicine.

Biocompatible materials will probably to a large extent also be substituting currently used implants in humans. Another related aspect is nano designed surfaces that inhibit or promote growth of microorganisms. Especially surfaces that inhibit growth may be used to substitute a wide array of biocidal applications.

Nanosensors and nanofluidics could be expected to cause an extension of the use of monitoring, since it may be possible to decentralise the analysis and maybe also to measure more. However, such an extension may be an environmental benefit if it enables a faster reaction and solving of problems upfront.

Plastic electronics is expected to cause a more dispersive and invasive use of electronics and will no doubt extend the use of electronics, possibly increasing the overall environmental impacts of electronics.

Nanooptics and nanophotonics have different application fields like e.g. LED, polymer displays, and microstructured fibres (for transmissions). The nanotechnology can to a wide extent substitute existing technologies for lighting and for displays, but they may also results in extension of the use of e.g. displays. Nanocatalysis, hydrogen technology etc. are expected to primarily substitute currently used technologies.

Nanomaterials with new functional properties cover a wide spectrum of materials and particles. Examples are magnetic nanoparticles used in data storage or nanoparticles absorbing specific wave lengths of light used in cosmetics. The area of application is so wide that it can be expected to both substitute existing technologies and to extend the use to new applications.

Given the enabling and in most cases emerging nature of nanotechnologies they are likely to have profound effects on wide parts of the production and consumption patterns which need to be taken into consideration when assessing the overall environmental impacts of these technologies. We need to elaborate further into these issues.

5.6.1 Cases on nano eco-potentials

Based on input from a number of Danish nano researchers 6 case studies are brought here to illustrate the innovation and environmental potentials more in detail. These can be used for a more specific environmental assessment since more is known about the specific potential application areas and production techniques. A short environmental assessment is made on each case by Stig Olsen, IPU, bringing a balanced valuation of environmental benefits as well as possible threats.

The cases are chosen so that they illustrate different kind of nanotechnologies and how these may offer different types of solutions to environmental problems. They are examples of more mature nanotechnologies, i.e. there are already products on the market. Hence the cases also seek to illustrate interesting Danish innovation activities. The cases have rather clear environmental advantages but this does not mean that these are the innovations with the highest eco-potentials.

5.6.1.1 Case: Super critical synthesis of nanoparticles^[23] – innovation in nano manufacturing (no.32)

Nanomaterials are cornerstones in many attempts to develop and exploit nanotechnology. Numerous new applications are being developed including electronics, sensors, coatings, optical fibres/barriers, ferro fluids, ceramics, membranes, catalysts, paints, lubricants, pesticides, food additives, anti-microbials, sunscreens, fuel cells, solar cells, cosmetics etc. In virtually all applications of nanomaterials it is the primary synthesis of the materials, which is limiting further exploitation of nanotechnologies. It is essential to focus on new processing technologies if nanomaterials are to become competitive in the market.

Supercritical synthesis processes comprise sustainable green chemistry routes as the reaction media e.g. are environmentally benign CO₂ or H₂O in the supercritical state. Compared with the present state-of-the-art in producing nanomaterials, supercritical processes allow production at significantly lower temperatures and shorter reaction times than by conventional methods, and the need for subsequent drying and/or calcination is eliminated. The supercritical preparative schemes hold great promise for revolutionizing the quality and availability (reduced cost, easier processes, improved homogeneity) of modern nanomaterials. Whereas conventional sol-gel methods may take hours, the supercritical methods are finished within less than a minute.

There have been tremendous advances in supercritical fluid technology in the last decade. Today the traditional applications in extraction processes (e.g. caffeine from coffee) have been augmented by applications e.g. in materials processing, organic reactions, separations, polymers, pharmaceuticals etc. Danish applications with environmental implications include wood treatment (the brand name "Superwood") or water treatment and conversion of organic waste to hydrogen and methane and biodiesel. Supercritical fluids exhibit unique properties such as gas-like mass transfer properties (diffusivity, viscosity and surface tension), yet having liquid-like properties such as high solvation capability and density. Furthermore, the solubility can be manipulated by simple means such as pressure and temperature.

Together with the Danish company SCF Technologies, iNANO has recently developed a unique multipurpose, continouos flow, supercritical synthesis reactor capable of producing extremely homogenous nanoparticles. The system, which can handle all common supercritical solvents, allows easy scaling to industrial production. The flexible design allows synthesis of most materials, which are otherwise fabricated by sol-gel or hydrothermal methods. The system, which can handle all common supercritical solvents, allows easy scaling to industrial production. The flexible design allows synthesis of most materials, which are otherwise fabricated by sol-gel or hydrothermal methods.

Compared to the processes normally used in nano particle production as listed in table 5.2 it can be seen that the supercritical synthesis of nanoparticles undoubtedly will present an environmental advantage compared to the hitherto traditional production methodologies, even though the alternative sol-gel process is not one of the most energy requiring processes. Considering the raw materials the supercritical synthesis may potentially be able to use raw materials which are less processed. It can be expected that there are no differences in the use and disposal stage of the nanoparticles. The most significant difference will probably exist in the processing of the nanoparticles. The super critical synthesis of nanoparticles is likely to reduce the first of all the time but also the costs, and improve the homogeneity of the nanoparticles which may lead to a larger use of nanoparticles. Depending on the properties and use of the particular nanoparticle (e.g. as shown in table 5.2) this may lead to either environmental benefits or increased risks.

5.6.1.2 Case: Nanotechnological coatings based on sol-gel synthesis^[24] - innovating surfaces

A newly developed type of chemically synthesised hybrid coatings produced by means of the so-called sol-gel technology (sol like in solution and gel like in gelation), also characterised as chemical nanotechnology, has revolutionized the opportunities for altering the surface properties of a large series of material which includes nearly all metals and alloys, glass, wood etc. by the formation of a strongly connected inorganic, ceramic network combined with the organic chemistry’s possibility of introducing various functionalities.

The sol-gel technology is based on the polymerising of small inorganic molecules; in a simple instance metal alkoxides M(OR)_n, are being used. In these cases the metal, M, represent silicon, titanium, zirconium, aluminium etc., and R presents an alkyl group, typically methyl or ethyl. Through hydrolysis and a subsequent condensation reaction it is possible to cross-link the molecules into a metal-oxopolymer nanoparticles in dimension of 1-50 nm. These nanoparticles constitute a basis for producing thin ceramic coatings, ceramic phases or porous structures.

During the last couple of years, research and development within chemical synthesis has resulted in an overwhelming number of commercially available metal organic chemicals, which makes it possible to introduce different organic groups in covalent connection with this inorganic network. By introducing such organically modified metal alkoxides into the formation of the before mentioned nanoparticles, the backbone of the ceramic coatings will be enriched with a chosen functionality. Hereby it will be possible to modify the physical, chemical, optical and mechanical properties of the formed coatings or structures in an extent that cannot be reached by conventional methods.

Within the last couple of years, the Danish Technological Institute has experienced a great success in producing sol-gel coatings with emphasis on specific functions, i.e. lime stone repellence on metal surfaces, ice repellent properties for application in the aircraft and wind mill industries and anti-graffiti lacquer for instance for the train industry. For the anti-lime stone and anti-ice coatings the adhesion of the respective crystals is so minimal that a slight dynamic influence – for example flow of water or air – is sufficient to clean the surface. Therefore a large saving in the application of chemical ice and lime stone removing materials can be expected. The use of chemical nanotechnology within the development of the new type of anti-graffiti makes it possible to remove graffiti vandalism on prepared surfaces with just water and not – as up to now – with the use of chemical solvents.

The experiences obtained in these projects have justified an expectation of a successful application of the sol-gel technology for the production of a non-poisonous anti-fouling coating intended for boats. With support from the Danish Ministry of the Environment, a craft project with the purpose of testing some selected sol-gel lacquers was completed in 2004. In co-operation with three yacht clubs the lacquers were applied to a number of test plates and private boats and tested throughout the yachting season. The most important results obtained from this project include a visible reduction of alga growth and a considerable easier ability to clean the boats at the end of the season.

The nanotechnological coatings described can to a wide extent be expected to substitute other ways of providing functions like de-icing, antifouling etc. Thus the development is not expected to create new needs.

De-icing is currently performed using different types of organic solvents, mostly glycols, and the use of a nanotechnological coating could be able to substitute the use of these. The same applies to anti-graffiti. It is not known, yet how much coating will be required, how long it will last and whether components of the coating will be released over time. It also remains to be seen what the possible effect of such a release could be.

Antifouling is normally performed with rather toxic compounds such as organotin compounds, which cause impacts in the marine environment, especially in the harbours. A substitution of these by non-hazardous alternatives would clearly be an environmental benefit, if the nano technological coating does not release other similarly hazardous compounds during use.

In a LCA comparison between a nanotechnological varnish and three conventional varnishes (water based, solvent based and powder) the nanotechnological varnish clearly were environmentally better in terms of the amount of material used and emissions (VOC and others) during the life cycle, partly because it was possible to obtain the same properties applying thinner layers of coating (Steinfeldt et al., 2004).

The production of nanomaterial via the sol-gel production process is not expected to be very different from other types of chemical processing.

5.6.1.3 Case: LEDs for eco-innovation in lightning^[25] - high-end applications of nanotechnology

LEDs is one of the areas frequently highlighted when referring to the eco-potentials of nanotechnology^[26]. Commercial Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are in a rapid stage of development globally. The light emission is now so strong that LEDs can be used for general illumination. The successful application of LEDs in general illumination is forecasted to provide significant economic and environmental benefits. Today LEDs can be found in many applications requiring coloured light, such as e.g. signs, traffic signals and automobile brake lights. Recent advances in nanotechnology, compound semiconductor materials and enhanced manufacturing techniques are enabling a new generation of blue, green and white LEDs. White LEDs are based on a blue LED used to pump a mixture of phosphors in order to produce white light. White LEDs can, however, also be achieved by mixing light from multiple LEDs of different colour. The latter, known as RGB-technology, is a new technology being developed in Denmark. This technology has potentially higher energy efficiency and the advantage of color tuneability leading to flexible lightning sources.

The advantages of LEDs are many, such as low maintenance cost, tuneability and compact size, but also environmentally important factors such as longevity, energy efficiency and no environmentally harmful substances. In the user phase the energy consumption is low compared to incandescent bulbs, leading to SO2 reductions etc. LEDs need only about 50 percent of the power required by a normal bulb in order to produce the same amount of light^[27].The longevity in the user phase means a considerable reduced production of light sources (replacing 50-100 incandescent bulbs with low longevity). LEDs are also environmentally friendly in the waste phase, as the content of heavy metals is small, (e.g. no mercury, no UV-light) compared to fluorescent lamps. Since LEDs can now produce white high quality light, and thereby may be expected to replace the conventional lighting technology such a switch would result in substantial energy savings. Recent estimates suggest that under the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) accelerated schedule, solid-state lighting could displace general illumination light sources such as incandescent and fluorescent lamps by 2025, decreasing energy consumption for lighting by 29 percent and saving 3.5 quadrillion BTUs^[28]. In Europe, about 10 percent of the electrical power produced is used for lighting, in Denmark the figure is 12 percent.

Commercial LEDs have reached and surpassed the energy efficiency of incandescent lamps with a luminous efficacy of 60 lumens/Watt for red LEDs and approx. 20-40 lumens/Watt for white LEDs. Red LEDs have reached 100 lumens/Watt in laboratories and with future improved LED materials the luminous efficacy is expected to reach 150 lumens/Watt. Thus LEDs are expected to challenge the energy efficiency of fluorescent lamps in the future.

Nanotechnology plays a major part in the development of new enhanced LEDs, with higher energy efficiency but also higher total luminous flux. (The total luminous flux from a single LED package is today so low that only low wattage incandescent lamps are readily replaced by SSL sources). Novel growth technologies using nanoscale patterning are employed for improved substrates and precise layering of semiconductor materials. Quantum-dot heterostructure LEDs with structures sizes around 10 nm are utilized for high efficiency light generation. Nanocomposite LED die/chip encapsulants with high refractive index is being developed for improved light extraction from the LED chip. Quantum-dot structures in the encapsulant material can emit visible light when excited by a UV LED and may thus be used as nanophosphor, an alternative to using yellow phosphors for white light generation. This may result in new ways to tune the spectrum of emitted white light.

The LED technology development is taken place globally mainly driven by large companies in the US, Japan and Germany and research institutes like Sandia National Laboratories. In Denmark a niche is sought developed directed not so much towards components but towards novel high end applications of high brightness LEDs for general illumination. An ongoing project aims at developing a high quality LED lamp, based on RGB-technology, with high color rendering and tuneability for replacement of low wattage incandescent lamps. Novel micro- and nanostructured optical elements are being developed for efficient color mixing and light control. The project is a cooperation between Risoe National Laboratory and Danish industrial partners, NESA, RGB-Lamps and Nordlux. A new project starting 2005 continues and extends this work aiming to develop novel types of fixtures and lamps for this new generation of innovative and flexible forms of illumination. This is done in cooperation with Asger BC Lys and Louis Poulsen Lighting. Both projects are supported by ELFOR, Dansk Eldistribution.

Lighting is a heavy energy user, 10-12 percent of the electricity consumption, so reductions here have major environmental impacts. Since lighting is widely used both in public and private spaces it is not likely that the development of new types of lighting such as LEDs will extend the use of lighting considerably. Thus it is expected that LEDs will substitute other types of lamps rather than create new needs. In the use phase the development of LEDs that are more energy efficient will provide an environmental benefit. An incandescent lamp has an efficiency of app. 5-12 lm/W whereas it is foreseen that efficiencies of 150 lm/W may be obtained by LEDs. But already now LEDs with efficiencies of 20-60 lm/w are more efficient than incandescent lamps. However, the now widely used fluorescent lamps still have higher energy efficiencies (50-75 lm/W) than LEDs.

Looking into the materials used for producing the different types of lamp, LEDs have an advantage in comparison with fluorescent lamps since no mercury is used in LEDs. It can also be expected that the material amounts will be less for LEDs. During production of LEDs it can be expected that the energy requirements are high since nanomaterials used will probably be produced by vapour phase deposition or lithography, both processes requiring clean room facilities (see table 5.2). During the disposal fluorescent lamps are collected as hazardous waste thereby securing collection and reuse of mercury and other materials. This is not the case for incandescent lamps and probably not for LEDs. For LEDs the reuse of nanomaterials may constitute a problem.

In the use phase the development of LEDs that are more energy efficient will provide an environmental benefit. [An incandescent lamp has an efficiency of app. 5-12 lm/W whereas it is foreseen that efficiencies of 150 lm/W may be obtained by LEDs. But already now LEDs with efficiencies of 20-60 lm/w are more efficient than incandescent lamps. However, the now widely used fluorescent lamps still have higher energy efficiencies (50-75 lm/W) than LEDs.

The future practical application of quantum dots will most certainly lead to a further increase in energy efficiency within light sources. Quantum dot technologies are anticipated to find their place in display technology, especially in combination with OLEDs (organic LEDs). It will take a few more years, however, until quantum dots reach a position as commercially viable products (Steinfeldt et al., 2004).

5.6.1.4 Case: Nat-nano-mats – Natural nano-materials for treating water, immobilising waste, or dosing pesticides and fertilisers^[29] - Innovation for environmental remediation

Insuring clean water, dealing with our waste, and producing food are some of the most critical issues of sustainability for human existence as well as for a secure environment for plant and animal species. Often, in our attempts to solve one pollution problem, we create one or several more. Strategies that make use of natural processes on natural materials are one way of minimising adverse anthropogenic effects.

Nano-materials have been around in nature since the beginning of time. Mineral particles, macromolecules and coatings only a few atomic layers thick have always controlled the composition of water, whether in rivers, lakes and the ocean, or in soil or hydrothermal systems. Reactions at the interface between natural solids and fluids have always been responsible for uptake and release of trace components that can be essential for life or that can be toxic. With the birth of nanotechnology, tools became available that provide geoscientists direct observation of these processes so their work has entered a new realm. There are three aspects of ‘nano’ – nano-metrology (the development of instruments and methods for observing samples), nano-science (the definition of physical and chemical processes at the nanometer-scale), and nano-technology (the development of devices and advanced materials for solving specific problems). The development of a saleable product, including those relevant for environmental protection, requires progression in that order. The application of nano-techniques to environmental questions is still in its infancy, but a good start has been made.

There is a group of researchers^[30], who have been working loosely together many years on defining the properties and reactivity of nanoparticles in an environmental context – to develop and maintain safe water supply, to immobilise or treat waste, and to optimise dosage of pesticides and fertilisers. There have been projects over the past 20 year, that have applied spectroscopies sensitive to the top 10 nm of solids and the past 15 years using nano-scale microscopies, where the goal has been to define the mechanisms of uptake, release and degradation.

Here are case studies based on three natural nanoparticulate minerals that are common in rocks, soils and sediments, as well as water supply systems. These materials are stable and safe. They are calcite, CaCO₃, iron-oxides/hydroxides and alumino-silicates. There are many other minerals with interesting potential, but these three demonstrate the range of problems that natural materials can and will be able to solve with help from nano-technology.

The pollutants and beneficial components that interest us, that can move or not move in the environment, take many forms. Pollutants can be: i) inorganic, including heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, etc.; ii) organic, such as pesticides, halogenated hydrocarbons (solvents, dry cleaning fluids), spilled oil, drugs, etc.; iii) radioactive, such as hospital and research waste, and spent fuel rods stored by Denmark’s neighbours; and biological, such as viruses and bacteria that may be pathogens themselves or that produce unwanted compounds. Those that are beneficial include: inorganic and organic components necessary for plant and animal growth and micro-organisms that help degrade toxic materials to harmless ones or release beneficial compounds.

Most municipal water supplies tap reservoirs in chalk or in glacial till where chalk is a component. Some heavy metals, such as arsenic and nickel, are released to groundwater when pyrite in the chalk oxidises. Chalk is often more than 90% calcite (CaCO₃) and this mineral is interesting because of its open atomic arrangement, which allows easy uptake of toxic metals such as Ni²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ onto surfaces and into particles. Thus, groundwater at equilibrium with chalk has a built-in potential for self-treatment. A recent study (Roskilde Amt, Hedeselskabet and NanoGeoScience, Geological Institute, Copenhagen University) has shown that the very fine, biogenic chalk particles remove nickel much more effectively than pure calcite with the same surface area. Biomineralisation experiments with the nanometer-scale elements of coccoliths, one of the components of chalk, are currently underway at NanoGeoScience, Copenhagen University to define the parameters responsible for the enhanced uptake and to produce nano-particles that improve on the natural material. This is an innovation with exciting possibilities. It takes a successful bulk technology and redefines it with nano-scale materials.

When fresh groundwater is pumped from a well, it is aerated, usually by splashing over a series of concrete steps. H₂S (smell of rotten eggs) bubbles out and O₂ enters, dissolved Fe(II) oxidises and nanoparticles of Fe-hydroxide (rust) precipitate. The flexibility of the iron oxide structure, their very high surface area, and their reactivity result in removal of many heavy metals and organic components in a completely natural process and one that is of great benefit to the water suppliers. However, costs can be reduced and safe drinking water production can be optimised by developing and stabilising even smaller particles, and more important, altering their properties to optimise immobilisation capacity. Research at DTU ER, KVL IGV and KU GI^[31] is determining the controls of Fe-oxide nanoparticle production, the influence of biological intervention and perspectives for surface modification. Projects are at the exploratory level; they aim at sophistication of the existing, bulk technology.

Waste repositories for non-degradable waste, such as heavy metals from fly ash or spent fuel from nuclear power generation, require special containment or treatment systems. Strategies include immobilisation in a stable solid phase or impermeable liners and reactive barriers to slow or prevent transport in groundwater. Natural nano-particles are already playing a role; development will improve their properties.

Swelling clays such as bentonite, have long been used as liners for waste canisters and for landfills where municipal waste and fly ash are dumped. The clay itself is reactive and its ability to incorporate water in the mineral structure makes a tight seal to prevent further water movement. However, landfill liners have been improved by adding reactive components, for example by adding metallic iron, Fe(0). The crude but effective, patented ‘Iron Wall Technology’ uses ground scrap steel mixed with sand, filled in a trench dug with a bulldozer across the path of a groundwater pollution plume. Dissolved, redox sensitive pollutants are reduced as the iron rusts and the Fe(III)-oxide produces surface area for adsorption of other toxic components. An active component of the Iron Wall is green rust, a mineral of the layered double hydroxide (LDH) mineral family. In cooperation with several industries and research organisations, researchers from KVL IGV, DTU ER and GI KU NanoGeoScience are investigating ways to engineer LDH nanoparticles to improve effectiveness and increase security for immobilising and degrading toxic compounds. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are converted to less harmful and more easily degradable compounds, nitrate is reduced, and carcenogenic dissolved chromium, Cr(VI) is reduced to immobile and non-toxic Cr(III). This research is at the exploratory level (nano-science stage) but will lead to design of nano-materials targeted for specific pollutants, engineered to dramatically improve efficiency over the crude, existing technology.

Layered-double hydroxide (LDH) minerals are sandwich structures consisting of metal hydroxide layers alternating with interlayers. The interlayers are easy to manipulate so one can design them to incorporate specific compounds and to release them under specific conditions. LDH’s can be doped with surfactants, peptides or cyclodextrines in the interlayers or one can create them to host medicine, hormones, pesticides, micronutrients, enzymes, etc, for programmed release. Such dosage control protects the incorporated dopant from deactivation, decreases the quantity of bioactive ingredient needed, minimises the risk of leakage to the surroundings, and reduces cost. LDH’s with trapped enzymes can be coated on electrodes to produce sensors for which transformations are catalysed by the enzymes. The KVL group is focussing on design of LDH’s through knowledge of their nanoscale properties. Some LDH materials are currently on the market but the manipulation of LDH to produce dosing products or censors is at the exploratory stage.

a) Optimising natural processes for removal of unwanted substances in drinking water is indeed an environmentally beneficial approach, especially if the natural removal properties can be enlarged without the additional use of energy or material resources. As with the modified starch polymers, there may be other technologies available against which the environmental impacts should be compared.

b) Problems of pollution of the ground water from deposits of toxic materials and compounds ranks high on the agenda since the possibility of extracting clean water from the ground by many is felt to be an essential right. Thus improvements of the technologies to ensure the supply of clean water are important. It must be considered to what degree the new nano technologies are environmental improvements of existing (or development trends in the existing methodologies), what are the environmental impacts through the life cycle of the technologies, e.g. what are the use of energy and material resources, how are the materials disposed of when used etc.

c) Excess use of chemicals due to overdosing of pesticides, medicine etc. is environmentally important. The developments of technologies such as LDH that may facilitate a more optimal use and less spillage of chemicals will probably be an environmental benefit. As for the other methodologies it should be assessed whether the environmental impacts of using the new methodology during the life cycle balance out the impacts of the problem we are trying to solve.

5.6.1.5 Case: Nanoparticulate starch as a potential heavy metal and hydrophobic absorbent^[32]- innovation for novel adsorption technologies

The pollution of water by heavy metals and toxic organic compounds pose a tremendous and growing global environmental problem. Among a multitude of technologies developed for removal of toxic matter in the environment, adsorption technologies based on biomass have considerable potential and have been extensively studied. Examples have included studies on absorption of metals, oil or other pollutants by chemically modified wood fibre, plant fibres or bark. Starch is one of the most significant renewable biopolymer resources on earth, with global annual production of pure starch amounting to some 40 – 50 million tones, and is therefore an outstanding raw material for a number of applications (Ellis et al., 1998 J.Sci.Food Sci. 77, 289). Thanks to recent cross-disciplinary developments in biotechnology and polymer science (e.g. Blennow, 2004, In: Starch in food: Structure, function and applications. Eliasson, A.-C. ed., p 97) the nanostructures of starch can now be specifically engineered to possess vastly different chemical and physical properties, many of which are industrially important.

One important challenge for the coming decade will be to explore the potential of starch for bulk applications in demanding and innovative hydrocolloid and solid systems. This will include the development of functionalised renewable biomaterials and more effective environmental adsorbents (e.g., for flocculation of heavy metals, Crini, 2005, Progr. Polym. Sci. 30, 38). Starch deserves particular attention in this respect as it provides interesting and attractive types of physico-chemical characteristics, chemical stability, high reactivity and selectivity towards a variety of compounds, resulting from the presence of chemical reactive and functional groups (hydroxyl, phosphate) and hydrophobic channels in the polymer matrix. Of specific interest is the recent proof of principle for the possibility of generating highly phosphorylated and thermally stabilized starch particles directly in the plant based on work carried out at KVL (Blennow et al, 2005 Int. J. Biol. Macromol. accepted) enabling matrix nanostructures (e.g., well defined hydrophobic nano-sized channels) to be functionalized (e.g., with phosphate).

These particles have been engineered to possess increased capacity for interactions with heavy metals and can potentially be improved for better selectivity as well as for selective hydrophobic interactions brought about by engineering the dimensions and the phosphate positioning within the nanochannels.

KVL is currently pursuing research on the mechanisms of adsorption of cupper ions to nano-engineered starch using EPR. At the Danish Polymer Centre (DPC) at Risoe National Laboratory facilities for characterization of the nanostructured starch is fully established enabling disclosure of fundamentally new information concerning its absorption properties and other features using the wide range of state-of-the art techniques available within our two organizations. Specific methods available include SEM, ESEM, TEM, AFM, CLSM (confocal laser scanning microscopy), XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy), FFF (Field Flow Fractionation), HR-MAS-NMR and ToF-SIMS (time-of-flight mass spectrometry).

From an industrial perspective, Denmark has strong and internationally competitive research activity in this field and Danish industrial groups (e.g., KMC and ISI, Cerestar-AKV) are firmly established with activities to pursue, develop and commercialise functionalized bulk biopolymers which may form the basis for the suggested eco-innovation.

The use of filters and adsorbents for removal/concentration of toxic materials in the environment is an important means for reducing potential environmental impacts. Several options have been used through the years e.g. membranes and active carbon and are well-established technologies. The possible environmental benefits of using nanoparticulate starch must be evaluated through an assessment of the environmental impacts during the life cycle of the nanoparticulate starch compared to other filtration/adsorption techniques. The production in-vivo in green plants may be an environmental benefit. It must also be considered what additional benefits could be offered by using the starch based materials compared to active carbon or others, in terms of e.g. a more specific functionalisation of the adsorption.

The assessment must also consider that by using biomass and farming land such a production withdraws materials from the pool of biomass. An important question is: What is the best way of using biomass?

5.6.1.6 Case: Nanoporous materials for hydrogen fuel and diesel cleaning – eco- innovation in mobility^[33]

Transport remains one of the major causes of air pollution such as NO_x VOC, CO2 and particles, due to continuing and dramatic increases in the numbers of cars as well as the kilometers driven globally. EU environmental regulation has promoted innovations in environmental catalysts which has decreased these emissions substantially but problems remain particularly with diesel emission, noticeable in the form of particles. New stricter EURO IV emission standards for petrol and now also diesel cars necessitate further innovation in environmental catalysts. But innovation for new fuel systems are also undergoing within the automotive sector though many technical problems remain here.

At the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), an interdisciplinary research team from NanoDTU has invented nano materials that improve the safe transport of hydrogen and ammonia. This innovation has implications for the development of fuel cell driven cars as for diesel cleaning. Technically, both of these opportunities rely on the use of self- generating nanoporous materials that allow unprecedented high storage capacities. Scientifically, the progress relies on the research in catalysis and nano materials, where DTU is among the world-leaders.

The technology aims particularly to solve the long-standing problem of reversible, high-density storage of hydrogen in a safe and environmentally acceptable form. This is one of the Grand Challenges in bringing life to a Hydrogen Economy, where hydrogen is used as a clean fuel for stationary and mobile units. The technology makes it possible already now to meet the 2015 targets set by the US Department of Energy in the technology road-map developed for mobile units. With the new technology, it will be possible e.g., to drive efficient fuel cell cars without e.g., any CO2-emissions.

As a spin-off from the main technology, it has also been possible to develop a new system that will allow safe transport of ammonia for use in selective catalytic reduction in diesel or lean-burn vehicles. With this new system, all maintenance and recharging can be performed at the regular service intervals of e.g., 25.000 km. Hereby a breakthrough in diesel cleaning technologies is achieved.

Thus, the two new technologies may contribute in important ways to materialize a Hydrogen Economy and for eliminating the NOx-pollution from mobile and possibly also stationary units, which to day represents a serious environmental problem.

Within the last year, the research breakthrough has resulted in three patent applications and as off April 2005 the commercial potential is being explored in the Danish start-up company AMMINEX A/S, which is a spin-off from DTU that will market and further develop the technologies.

Demand for transport is growing rapidly, and this has implications across many areas, including energy consumption, global warming and human health. Fuel cells cars constitute one potential aim for reducing the pollution and energy use. As mentioned one challenge for the potential use of fuel cells is the storage of hydrogen, another is the reduction in efficiency due to the conversion loss from the storage to hydrogen.

For the currently used technologies, catalytic cleaning of engine exhaust constitutes a major leap towards reduction of the pollution with nitrogen oxides and VOC (both contributing to photochemical smog) and for diesel engines additionally reduction of emitted particles constituting a major health hazard. Thus improvements in this area will beneficiate the environmental performance of existing car engines.

As for the case study above it is difficult to draw more specific conclusions concerning the overall environmental benefits of the technology because the environmental assessment must include the total system of producing the engines and the hydrogen, through the use and maintenance to the final disposal. This should be compared to currently used technologies (including their potential developments in energy efficiency, catalytic pollution reduction etc.).

5.7 Conclusion

The Danish nano innovation system is still at a very early and quite fluid stage of formation. We are talking more about path creation in nano science than traceable technological trajectories. But it is also clear that these technological trajectories are in a critical stage of materialising right now and will emerge on a larger scale in the coming 5-15 years. The current phase of path creation seems therefore crucial for the direction nanotechnology is going to take.

Even though it can be contested to which degree nanotechnology is a new technology (or just a hype redefining existing practices) there are clear signs of novelty in the organisation of knowledge production and in the modes of learning in the Danish nano community. There are new patterns of problem solving activities related to the rise of the nano domain.

Eco-innovations are, however, to quite a large degree excluded from the attention rules and they are weak in the search rules with some exceptions though. Despite frequent references to considerable eco-opportunities of nanotechnology in the general nano debate internationally as well as in Denmark, environmental issues are only moderately part of the normal problem solving activity of the Danish nano technological community.

A very wide range of nano related eco-potentials have been identified none the least, possible making up the most detailed mapping of nano eco-potentials made so far. This is due to the fact that there are some intrinsic features of nanotechnologies that may facilitate eco-innovation, by making more tailored, efficient, selective and intelligent materials and products. Quite many nanotechnologies thus possess eco-potentials, even though they are not being developed with environmental benefits in mind.

In all 39 suggested research areas/technologies are identified which offer eco-potentials within eleven different main nano research/technology areas.

Energy production – developing efficient or alternative energy systems to fossil fuels.

The 39 suggested research areas/technologies cover a very broad range of research and technology themes at very different development stages.

It is generally too early to pick the environmental winners given the very early stage of development and the immature materialization of nanomanufacturing and the many new research questions and technologies under way. Many (most) of the identified nano eco-potentials are at an experimental stage of development. Others are in early production, e.g. some functional surfaces techniques, and a few, mainly catalysis and some sensors, are fully commercialized.

What we can say is that there are many very interesting eco-potentials related to different nanotechnologies, and that there are grounds to pursue and investigate the Danish eco-potentials of nanotechnologies further.

The interesting thing about the identified eco-potentials is that they in some cases may offer novel solutions to environmental problems. This may especially be expected from the mentioned groups of fundamental nano research areas into new materials and functional surfaces (from group 1 and 2 from above) which could lead to more radical and possibly widespread systemic eco-innovations. I.e. creating materials and products which have integrated “eco-properties” (such as being anti-bacterial, self/easy-cleaning, insulating, strong and light, self-monitoring and -diagnozing) for greater resource-efficiency, selectivity and durability. This could allow for more ongoing and decentralized smart eco-solutions and thereby a more preventive and integrated approach than practiced today. But this is also where the environmental orientation amongst the Danish researchers is most limited and where it is least likely that the eco-potential will be exploited.

Also group 4, environmental remediation, may offer new approaches to environmental remediation by using nanoparticles to make more targeted action towards specific pollutants and by exploiting the cleaning capacity of natural systems better. The strong catalysis area is well-established and does not currently give expectations of major novel solutions in the coming years, though there are exciting developments within diesel cleaning. However, the novel environmental benefits may lie in the contributions this research makes to obtaining breakthroughs within hydrogen based fuel systems. The mapping shows that nanotechnologies in important ways may contribute also to other new renewable and/or more efficient energy systems (group 3) and thereby to the central climate problems. Here we find some of the more commercially promising, but still emerging, nanotechnologies where Denmark holds quite a strong position too and which may have an impact in the coming years.

We cannot conclude that nano technologies are green as such; it is, as yet, a much too diverse technological field for such a general statement. But the identified eco-opportunities could overall make important contributions to a more resource efficient economy if materialized, though depending very much on how they are used and how they feed into other technologies.

The very strong Danish competencies within catalysis should provide a good basis for building a strong position within “green nanotechnology” here. But much indicates that this will not take place on its own. The emerging technological paths are only moderately green and many of the identified eco-opportunities are being neglected. Even though environmental targets are not purposefully pursued in the nanoresearch environmental advances may still be achieved through the general nanotechnology developments. In fact that is nowadays the case with many eco-innovations (since eco-innovation has shifted somewhat from add-on to less well-defined integrated technologies). But the environmental advantages are likely to be harvested later and to lesser extent and some will not be pursued/selected at all.

Naturally, it makes a difference if the research and development is aimed at e.g. the substitution of scarce or toxic materials, to improve the degradability and recycling abilities of materials and products, achieve dematerialisation etc., particularly if the goal is to find solutions to specific environmental problems or to achieve major systemic change.

The unexploited eco-potential is noteworthy considering the generally strong Danish competencies and policies on environmental issues. Most surpricingly perhaps in the water area where Danish industry holds strong competencies within water cleaning and supply, but where there is limited nano research and no linkages to the water industry.^[34] This illustrates the possible gaps between the high expectations and visions of nanotechnology and the actual processes taking place.

The suspicion of health and environmental risks from nanoparticles and so far lacking measures how to handle these in risk and safety procedures as discussed in section 5.3, seriously questions the environmental benefits of the nanotechnologies based on these particles and at least calls for a precautionary approach until more is known. Also, there are knowledge gaps about the wider environmental impacts of the other nanomaterials and varies nanotechnologies.

It is therefore important to investigate further into the eco-potentials and impacts of the different listed nanotechnologies and research areas and clarify the possibility to set up measures how to handle the new risk challenges nanotechnology poses. We need in other words both to know more about the opportunities and about the possible detrimental environmental impacts. The very early stage and therefore high uncertainty of some nanotechnologies means that it makes little sense to make environmental assessments of these. Rather in these cases there is a need for more research and development into these areas which includes their possible eco-potentials and -risks.

The many identified eco-potentials overall illustrate the very early and fluid stage of nanotechnology development globally and in Denmark, showing much creativity as streams of new research questions are raised. There are multiple future possible nano technological paths. Which ones are going to materialize themselves and the position they may come to play on the market is currently highly uncertain – and depends also on policies. The high uncertainty means that we need to acknowledge that there are limitations as to how much we can know now on both environmental opportunities and risks.

5.7.1 Problems to address by policy

On the basis of the analysis made as well as input from the innovation workshops and policy workshop held during the foresight project the following key problems are identified which policy should seek to address.

A fundamental problem is the long “distance” in the innovation food chain from fundamental nano research to application areas and societal and environmental effects. An overall dilemma is when and how to carry out dialogues and policy measures towards a technological field such as nanotechnology whose technological materialisation in the near to medium future is highly uncertain and very diverse. The early fluid stage of development means that there are good opportunities for influencing the direction of nanotechnology development, i.e. making it greener; at later stages the lock-in into competencies and investments will be greater and transition costs therefore higher.

Eco-innovation in these basic sciences and enabling technologies are likely to have widespread effects into practically all kinds of technologies. It would be a new strategy for environmental policy to focus on these early stages of the innovation food chain, but it may be an efficient way to achieve systemic eco-innovations in the long run. The more specific problems are divided into respectively a risk and an opportunity section.

- Weak attention to and means of handling environmental risks/detrimental effects related to nanotechnology

- Uncertainty – we have limited knowledge of the environmental effects related to nanotechnology, none the least because of the very early stage of developments. We are lacking data and knowledge of how to get these.

There is rising focus on toxicity but there is also need to focus on “clean nanotechnologies”, looking into the different nanotechnologies.

Hitherto lacking systematic incorporation of environmental assessments in research proposals (but suggested in EU as well as Danish nano action plan).

Existing risk/environmental assessment procedures are not adequate for measuring and handling materials at the nano scale. There are specific problems to address.

- Lacking nano competencies among risk/environmental assessments institutes and experts.

- Nanotechnology mediation is difficult due to complexity, hype and uncertainty - there is a need of dialogues and serious scrutiny.

- Nano policies, e.g. EU’s nano strategy, the Danish nano action plan, only focus on risks and overlook barriers to eco-innovation.

- Weak attention to and belief in nano-eco innovation business opportunities except for the catalysis and energy area (need of regulation to create new markets, need of demonstrations…)

- Lacking environmental competencies in the Danish nano community and lacking nano competencies among environmental experts and policy makers.

- Weak linkages between the nano community (e.g. the new nanocentres) and the environmental researchers/experts and the environmental industry.

Footnotes

^[9] The text draws on background research by my colleague Birgitte Rasmussen, Risoe, particularly on nano risks, and the written materials produced from the newly finished Danish Nanotechnology Foresight (Ministeriet for Videnskab, Teknologi og Udvikling 2004). Stig Olsen from IPU, DTU has particularly contributed with environmental assessments and Marianne Strange, project pilot at the Polymer Department at Risø National Laboratory has functioned as advisor on nanotechnology.

^[10] Innovation is commonly defined in the economic innovation literature as a novelty leading to value creation on the market.

^[12] In Australia, the ARC Centre for Functional Nanomaterials has a strong focus on eco-innovation see Http://www.arccfn.org.au

^[17] Interview with Frederik Søby and Søren Brun Hansen, Haldor Topsøe, 26/8 2004.

^[18] The companies are both Danish producers/developers as well as early users of nanotechnology. Companies in brackets implies a minor contact. A few foreign companies are mentioned when they have been in a dialogue with Danish nano researchers.

^[21] Acccording to Hans Lilholt, program leader of the materials division, Risoe National Laboratory.

^[23] Data for this case was provided by Professor Bo Brummerstedt Iversen from iNANO at Aarhus University.

^[24] Data for this case has been provided by Thomas Zwieg, Danish Technological Institute, Aarhus.

^[25] Data for this case is provided by Carsten Dam-Hansen and Paul Michael Petersen, Risoe National Laboratory and Jørn Scharling Holm, NESA.

^[26] European Commission (2004). Nanotechnology. Innovation for tomorrow’s world.

^[27] European Commission (2004). Nanotechnology. Innovation for tomorrow’s world.

^[29] Data for this case has been provided by Susan L. Svane Stipp, NanoGeoScience Group, Geological Institute, University of Copenhagen, Hans Christian Bruun Hansen and Christian Bender Koch, Environmental Chemistry Group, Department of Natural Sciences, KVL

^[30] Susan L. Svane Stipp, NanoGeoScience Group, Geological Institute, University of Copenhagen, Hans Christian Bruun Hansen and Christian Bender Koch, Environmental Chemistry Group, Department of Natural Sciences, KVL, Thomas H. Christensen, Erik Arvin and Hans-Jørgen Albrechtsen, Environment and Resources, DTU.

^[31] Technical University, Environment and Resources, the Agricultural University, Environmental Chemistry Group, Department of Natural Sciences, NanoGeoScience Group, Geological Institute, University of Copenhagen.

^[32] Data for this case has been provided by senior professor Andreas Bennow, The Royal Danish Agricultural University, and senior researcher David Plackett, Risoe national Laboratory.

^[33] Data for this case has been provided by professorClaus Hviid Christensen, Center for Sustainable and Green Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, DTU.