Commercial and Industrial Waste and Selected Wasteflows

3. Four important challenges for commercial and industrial waste

3.1 Large amounts of waste
3.2 Recycling
3.3 Hazardous waste
3.4 Environmental contaminants

In this chapter, the four important challenges associated with commercial and industrial waste will be described in more detail. These apply to the large amounts, the need for recycling, hazardous waste, and environmental contaminants.

3.1 Large amounts of waste

Amounts
In 1995, approximately six million tonnes of commercial and industrial waste were generated; 2.6 million tonnes from industry, 0.8 million tonnes from trade, offices and institutions, and 2.6 million tonnes from building and construction. In addition, 1.7 million tonnes of residues were produced from coal-fired power stations, 0.5 million tonnes residues from waste incineration plants, and approximately one million tonnes of sludge from sewage-treatment plants.

The different fractions
In Table 1, the different waste fractions of commercial and industrial waste are outlined by sector. Industry, and building and construction are the largest contributors and each produces about 30 per cent of all commercial and industrial waste. Residues from coal-fired power stations comprise about 20 per cent, while waste from sewage-treatment plants, and institutions, trade and offices each comprise 10 per cent.

It is seen that a large part of the waste which is produced can be broken down into unique waste fractions which indicate something of the nature of the waste. For the fractions ‘sundry suitable for incineration’ and ‘sundry not suitable for incineration’, which comprise about 15 per cent of commercial and industrial waste, it is not possible to determine anything precise about the nature of the waste. On the whole, however, this analysis is considered satisfactory enough to be able to identify waste fractions for which initiatives must be established in the form of minimising the amount of waste or increasing recycling.

Economic growth increases the amount of waste
Economic growth and therefore greater consumption will, all other things being equal, increase the amount of waste. This link has not only been ascertained in Denmark, but also throughout the EU. It has not been possible to delink economic growth, and growth in the amount of waste.

Need for many different initiatives
Clean technology, environmental management, recycling products and packaging, improvement of product quality in respect of durability, better possibilities for repair, increased recycling of components in spent products, etc. all other things being equal reduce the amount of waste. Efforts to minimise waste are characterised by the need for many different initiatives to achieve a visible result.

Quality control
In recent years, many enterprises have introduced various forms of certified quality control, for example ISO or DS. However, quality control has primarily been directed towards the quality of the product and fulfilling customer expectations, i.e. ensuring a specific level of quality and identical products. Quality assurance does not always take account of the consumption of resources and waste in connection with the production process, such as the number of rejected units in production and the materials wasted. In order to achieve a product with the desired quality, some enterprises have increased their reject rate.

Environmental management
With the aid of environmental management systems, eg. BS 7750, however, focus is put on enterprises’ consumption of resources such as waste generation, and energy and water consumption.

An enterprise’s work with quality control, for example, can also advantageously involve attention to production waste. Small changes in behaviour in daily operations can offer savings in resources and economic advantages for enterprises, without significant investment.

Clean technology
Efforts in this area are connected with clean technology, environmental management and quality control, including the organisation of production processes. It implies that efforts to minimise waste are based on the recommendations and guidelines which appear in the guidelines, reviews and surveys etc. published by the Environmental Protection Agency. The Environmental Protection Agency’s Position Paper ‘Intensified Product-oriented Environmental Action’ is a supplementary tool to minimise waste from, eg. rejected products, and the Industry Report is a tool for minimising production waste.

The effect is evident after several decades
With the introduction of clean technology, substitution of environmental contaminants, and environmental management, action is taken at source, i.e. in the production phase. However, these efforts will first have an effect on waste in the longer term. For example, it takes a long time to introduce clean technology and substitution in all phases, and the product’s lifetime decides when it will be found in the waste-flow. Efforts at source will, therefore, only be measurable after several decades.

Economy controls the choice of production process
It must also be faced that recommendations and the setting out of guidelines will not in themselves lead to waste minimisation, as it is to a large extent economy which controls the choice of a production process. The economic cost of waste disposal is therefore an important incentive for enterprises to reduce the amount of waste produced. Economic behaviour-regulating measures and systems which make the costs of waste disposal visible, for example, the introduction of environmental management and green accounting, are thus important factors in minimising waste. In addition, taxes and charges on waste have an impact on waste generation.

3.2 Recycling

A number of initiatives which are mentioned in the Action Plan on Waste and Recycling 1993-97, have not yet been implemented, or have taken full effect - amongst others, take-back schemes for transport packaging and electrical and electronic products. When this has taken place, it will lead to an increase in recycling but this will only partly find a corresponding fall in landfilling, as today a large proportion is incinerated.

Prerequisite for achieving objectives
There are two important prerequisites which must be fulfilled before it is possible to achieve the objectives for recycling. First, there must be a market for the recyclable products. Secondly, it must be ensured that there is waste to be recycled.

However, waste is only suitable for recycling if it constitutes products which can continue to be recycled. If recycling results in a new product of reduced quality, for example poor durability, then recyclability in the next phase is destroyed. Similarly, if the new product cannot be recycled for some other reason, then this cannot be considered as recycling, but merely postponement of waste disposal.

Separation of environmental contaminants
When recycling hazardous waste, or recycling waste containing environmental contaminants, particular attention must be paid to separation of the environmental contaminants so that they are taken out of the cycle. For example, it is necessary to remove batteries from end-of-life vehicles before they are scrapped. In this way, car scrap is not contaminated with lead from batteries.

Closed cycle
Alternatively, recycling can be kept in closed cycles. Today, nickel-cadmium batteries are recycled in closed cycles where the batteries are collected and reprocessed at special plants and subsequently incorporated in new batteries.

As mentioned above, there is a need for special efforts to increase recycling from trade and offices. A large part of the waste generated by this sector is paper, cardboard, and plastic. These waste fractions are suitable for incineration, but are also highly suitable for recycling. The Transport Packaging Agreement will contribute to increased efforts for these fractions. Within other sectors there will possibly also be waste fractions which can be recycled to advantage, whereas today they are incinerated.

The Danish business structure
Denmark is characterised by a business structure comprising many small and medium-sized enterprises, and in many municipalities a certain sector is only represented by one or two companies. It can be difficult administratively and economically for producers, waste companies or administrative authorities to manage waste in such a way that it is possible to recycle it. Although the effects of business regulations have not yet become fully evident, it should be considered whether recycling waste from certain sectors would be promoted if cooperation could be established within sectors, in larger regions, within waste companies or in other larger units, or by establishing national schemes.

The need for imports and exports
In certain cases, there is too little of a recyclable waste fraction in Denmark to ensure the supply and economic foundation required for a recycling enterprise. For example, this applies to certain types of plastic, and some types of hazardous waste. By entering into cooperation with other Nordic countries or other EU countries, optimal recycling of waste can be achieved. This may mean that a waste fraction must be imported to Denmark, or exported for recycling abroad.

Over the last ten years there has been considerable growth in the amount of waste from discarded products both in the consumption phase, and in industry. At the same time, technological developments have led to many products becoming more complex.

Complex products
Complexity is evident in materials and combinations of materials, advanced surface treatments, production of single-use products which are difficult or impossible to separate, etc. The consequence of this development is that the possibilities for recycling are limited, which leads to increasing demands on the recovery industry. There is, thus, a need to develop technologies which can break down, separate, manage, etc. products that are today discarded.

In order to reduce the problems which arise from the complexity of new products, demands should be placed on the composition of new products. If the complexity of waste is to be reduced in the future, and if it is to be possible to better manage complex waste than at present, there must be new forms of cooperation between manufacturers, waste collectors, waste-treatment enterprises, and the authorities. Such cooperation must contribute to waste recycling and disposal being considered during product development. These issues are also addressed in the Position Paper ‘Intensified Product-oriented Environmental Action’.

3.3. Hazardous waste

Regulations on hazardous waste
Hazardous waste differs from other waste in that there can be fire, health or environmental hazards to consider when managing hazardous waste. Table 2 outlines the characteristics which make waste hazardous. Regulation of hazardous waste is through EU directives and was transposed to Danish legislation in summer 1996. This replaced regulation on oil and chemical waste.

The composition of waste
The composition of waste determines the extent to which it is a burden on the environment. If a waste fraction contains hazardous substances, the waste itself may be hazardous, depending on how much of the hazardous substances occur, and how firmly bound the hazardous substances are to the waste.

Registration of hazardous waste
Hazardous waste must therefore be registered and, as a point of departure, must be collected by the municipality which is responsible for the disposal of hazardous waste. Special registration and collection of hazardous waste must ensure that hazardous waste is not managed and disposed of inappropriately, causing hazards to the environment and the population.

Disposal according to a specific assessment
How hazardous waste is disposed of is determined by a specific assessment of the composition of the waste and its characteristics, taking account of the waste disposal plants which are available.

Upon incineration, the nature of waste changes. Waste which was originally hazardous can be converted to non-hazardous components. For example, this applies to some organic solvents. In contrast, ‘non-hazardous waste’ can generate hazardous residues; this applies, for example, to PVC which generates acidic flue-gas cleaning products.

Some waste fractions contain environmental contaminants. This need not imply that such fractions are hazardous waste. Contaminants can be present in low concentrations, for example. However, the waste fraction can create environmental problems upon landfilling, or incineration, particularly if the waste fraction occurs in large amounts. This applies to impregnated wood, for example.

Upon incineration, environmental contaminants are transferred to residues. Some contaminants can subsequently be released into the environment, for example, through leaching. When landfilling there should assessments on whether the environmental contaminants could leach.

Some types of waste can be recycled, eg. oil. Other types can conveniently be collected and treated separately with a view to recovering, eg. heavy metals. This applies to lead batteries and photographic agents, for example.

Hazardous waste, eg. solvents, can in some circumstances be incinerated in conventional waste incineration plants, whereas other types of waste require special treatment, for example at Kommunekemi A/S.

Table 2. Outline of characteristics which make waste hazardous

Just as for all other waste, the decisive factor for disposal is that the waste is disposed of in a manner which offers the best possible protection for health and the environment, the best possible recycling of residues, and the best possible recovery of energy and raw materials.

The establishment of Kommunekemi A/S in 1972 and a collection system for hazardous waste has meant that for many years Denmark has had environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous waste. However, most of the waste is incinerated or landfilled. Awareness of developing methods which better promote utilisation of raw materials, including recovering environmental contaminants in hazardous waste has not been prevalent.

Less waste to Kommunekemi A/S
Over recent years, Kommunekemi A/S has noted a fall in the amount of waste received. According to Kommunekemi, this is partly due to enterprises adopting clean technology, and that there is more and more recycling of certain profitable fractions.

Another aspect is that more incineration plants are able to treat oil and chemical waste, and hazardous waste. Thus, today there are more municipalities which dispose of hazardous waste at plants other than Kommunekemi A/S. This is also a consequence of new regulations for hazardous waste which state, for example, that waste can be hazardous for the single reason that it is inflammable. This means that disposal of inflammable waste may occur at conventional incineration plants.

253,000 tonnes of hazardous waste per year
In 1995, the total amount of hazardous waste in Denmark amounted to over 253,000 tonnes, see Table 3. This information originates from Kommunekemi A/S, ISAG (Information System of Waste and Recycling), other hazardous waste disposal plants, and export statistics. The table is partly made up from information which covers the amounts produced (‘other types’), and partly from amounts which Kommunekemi A/S received in 1995. The Environmental Protection Agency assesses that these combined amounts offer a representative picture of the amounts of hazardous waste which are generated in Denmark.

Table 3 outlines how hazardous waste is distributed over various waste fractions, and the largest waste fractions received by Kommunekemi are specified. The Environmental Protection Agency is in possession of detailed information on the types of waste included in ‘other waste received at Kommunekemi’. However, these waste types are all received in amounts of less than 1,000 tonnes per year, and are therefore not analysed more specifically here.

Need for special efforts for small and medium-sized enterprises
The waste fractions mentioned in Table 3 come from large enterprises, as well as many small and medium-sized enterprises. Continued reductions in the total amount of hazardous waste require that special efforts are also made for small and medium-sized enterprises to spread clean technologies, or establish special collection, and separate treatment schemes if recycling of waste is to be promoted. This applies to the graphic and galvanising sectors, for example.

Waste taxes for hazardous waste
Hazardous waste is exempted from waste taxes. This is to avoid further incentives to dispose of hazardous waste by mixing it with other waste, as well as the incentives which the higher costs of disposing of hazardous waste bear in themselves. Treatment costs for hazardous waste have hitherto generally been significantly higher than costs for other waste.

However, the costs of disposal of hazardous waste vary considerable today, depending on the type of hazardous waste under consideration. The costs of disposing of certain types of hazardous waste are no higher than for normal waste.

The basis for exempting hazardous waste from taxes has therefore changed and the question is now, how far imposing taxes can contribute to limiting the amount of hazardous waste, encourage further use of clean technology, and possibly increase recycling.

Table 3. Outline of hazardous waste fractions generated in 1995

3.4 Environmental contaminants

Harm to the environment and people
Environmental contaminants include substances which occur naturally, and substances which are artificial. They are substances which, if present in unnaturally high amounts, will harm the environment and people. Environmental contaminants comprise, in themselves, a raw material resource. Some environmental contaminants are also characterised as being limited raw materials resources.

Table 4. Selected environmental contaminants and their effects on the environment and health

The most harmful environmental contaminants
In 1991, the Environmental Protection Agency established the ‘Framework programme for limiting environmental contaminants in waste, residues, and recyclable materials’, which was to indicate the most harmful contaminants in the waste flow, and identify important sources of such waste.

The programme has included analyses of emissions from incineration plants, landfills and composting plants for domestic waste and normal commercial and industrial waste in Denmark. That is to say, oil and chemical waste (hazardous waste) and other special waste delivered to special plants such as Kommunekemi A/S were not included in the analysis.

The Framework Programme has indicated a number of the most harmful contaminants found in residues from incineration plants. These include the heavy metals lead, mercury and cadmium, which are well known as environmental contaminants due to their toxicity in all recipients. However, nickel, chromium, copper, half-metallicised arsenic, and organic substances such as phthalates can also give rise to environmental and health problems shown in Table 4.

Mass-flow analyses
In order to have an impression of where environmental contaminants originate and where they end up, the Environmental Protection Agency has commissioned mass-flow analyses for the most harmful substances. The analyses show which waste fractions contribute heavy metals, and how different heavy metals are distributed in different disposal methods such as landfilling, incineration, at Kommunekemi A/S, or as waste-water sludge. Furthermore, they show the amount contributed to the overall burden by different products or processes.

Amount of heavy metals in different forms of disposal
Table 5 provides an overview of the amount of a number of selected heavy metals delivered to different forms of disposal. The figures are the best estimates the Environmental Protection Agency could attain, based on various surveys. The uncertainty of the various estimates is therefore different. It appears that waste fractions which contain environmental contaminants are primarily delivered to landfills or incineration.

Table 5. Delivery of selected heavy metals (estimated amounts in tonnes/year) via different forms of waste disposal

* Estimate based on ‘Orientering fra Miljøstyrelsen nr. 7' Consumption and pollution of arsenic, chromium, cobalt, and nickel, Environmental Protection Agency (1985), Environmental project No. XX Wood protection agents and impregnated wood, Environmental Protection Agency (being printed)

**Mass-flow analyses for lead, nickel, copper, mercury, Environmental Protection Agency (1996)

*** Consumption and pollution of cadmium, Environmental Protection Agency (1995)