Management of Contaminated Sites and Land in Central and Eastern Europe

Slovakia

Country Characterisation

The Slovak Republic was established on January 1^st 1993 after a peaceful split of the former Czechoslovakia into two independent sovereign countries.

The Slovakian landscape, belonging entirely to the Carpathian mountain system, changes from the lowest point at 94 m above sea level at the Bodrog river near the state border to Hungary up to the highest peak at the Gerlachovský peak 2644 m above sea level. From a hydrological point of view, Slovakia is situated on the main European watershed; the water resources are among the poorest in Europe.

In general terms, Slovakia has a very complicated pattern of soil types due to a complex topography and geology. Soil contamination is partially caused by natural (geochemical) factors but in particular by man caused changes. Soil under natural conditions may contain some metals at phytotoxic levels. Such elevated concentrations of some heavy metals in Slovakian soils correspond to geochemically anomalous zones representing some parent rocks (basic and ultrabasic), hydrothermally altered mineralised rocks and secondary dispersion halos. On the other hand, however, there is predominant contamination around the mining and ore processing sites as well as in some industrial and urban centres. Though heavy metals have been accumulated in the soil around some mining areas for centuries, accelerated accumulation occurred during the rising industrialisation (the development of heavy industry after World War II and implementation of non-proper technologies). The composition, concentration and speciation of the risk substances in "hot spot" regions vary widely and may influence their behaviour in the soil.

Soil contamination as an environmental issue emerged in Slovakia at the end of the seventies when the first limits for some heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu and Hg) were accepted. The concern on soil contamination has grown gradually and at present results of several regional projects related to soil contamination are available.

It is noted, that karst-groundwater is the main source for drinking water.

There is no specific definition for contaminated sites and land.

Given the aim that soil shall retain a multifunctional potential for use, an environmental policy plan has been developed. The Slovak environmental policy is not clustered in themes (acidification, eutrophication etc.) but rather in target groups (agriculture, transport, industry etc.) and environmental constituent groups (air, water, soil, food chain). This clustering has caused some competence problems. E.g. the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for soil protection, while the Ministry of Environment guides other environmental constituent groups (air and water).

The most important laws and regulations concerned with soil in Slovakia are the following:

	Act No. 307 from 1992: Soil Protection Law.
	Act No. 309 from 1992: Air Protection Law.
	Act No. 238 from 1993: Water Law.
	Act No. 287 from 1994: Environment Protection Law.
	Act No. 127 from 1994: Environment Impact Assessment Law.

Clean-up measures are decided based on the Water Act of 1973 or the Act on Soil Quality Criteria in Agriculture of 1992.

Furthermore, after January 1993 a National Act on Waste management was issued, defining measures for waste reduction, waste recycling, safe waste disposal and remediation of unsafe waste sites.

Based on these and other laws, the program document National Environmental Policy and National Environmental Action Program was developed in 1995 by the Ministry of Environment. Soil, however, was not integrated into this program, so in fact no integrated environmental policy plan exists.

The "polluter pay principle" is part of the national environmental policy.

Within the law on soil protection, target values or permissible levels for risk elements in soil were introduced. For this purpose, the former Dutch ABC-list was adapted in 1994. The defined values are supposed to support the decision making process of the local authorities.

The B values are usually applied as remediation targets. In groundwater protection areas, however, A values should be applied as remediation targets. With regard to soil gas, the C values of the Dutch list are used as intervention values.

Quality criteria for surface waters are defined in the decree 242/93, which are to be used as target values for abstracted groundwater.

At present, new limit values are elaborated related to application of sewage sludge and sediments from water dams.

Policies on soil clean-up are more linked to land reclamation and only loosely coupled to preventive environmental policies.

At a general level, the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for soil protection, and the Ministry of Environment guides other environmental constituent groups (air and water).

The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for:

	Compliance to environmental law.
	Definition of fines for environmental misdemeanours.
	Environmental inspection.
	Consultancy to the Ministry of Defence concerning clean-up of Soviet military sites

The general policy of the Environment Ministry with regard to soil protection is oriented to agricultural land use and specifies that the quality of soil must not be impaired compared to the background values. Impairment of soil quality and soil erosion must be prevented.

Furthermore, Environmental Departments exist both at the regional level and at the district level.

The Ministry of Defence is responsible for the clean-up of military sites of the former Soviet army, of the former Czechoslovakian Army, and of the current Slovakian National Army.

Up to now there are no inventories on contaminated sites except for sites of the former Soviet Army.

However, several projects have been initiated, among others in relation to mapping of soil:

	Geochemical mapping of soil in Slovakia started in 1991. Within this project, agricultural and forest soils were sampled all over the Slovakian territory with a grid of 1 sample per 10 km2. The samples are analysed for the content of 36 metals and inorganic elements. The project is finished and about to be published. The mapping has been conducted within the frame of a major national program "Geochemical Atlas of Slovakia", which includes the following media: Stream sediments, soils, radioactivity, forest biomass and rock types geochemistry. This provides the sound basis for the rational evaluation of the main environmental problems within the country.
	Soil monitoring has started some years ago. Within the frame of this project, contamination problems have been addressed. The content of some chemical elements, PAHs and mineral oil has been monitored.
	Agrochemical soil testing which is already made for agricultural soil aiming primarily at investigating available nutrients (N, P and K), pH and carbonate status. Later the testing has been extended to include also some extractable forms of heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Hg and Pb).
	Regional geochemical mapping of surface soils showing the distribution of chemical elements in some industrial regions.

Characterisation of Soil and Groundwater Contamination

Sources of Soil and Groundwater Contamination

The potentially worst contaminated areas are located around the industrial centres comprised of middle Spis region (Krompachy and Rudnany), Ziar and Hronom region, Jelsava-Lubenik, Hacava-Hnusta, and lower Orava region. The regions of upper Nitra, Ruzomberok, Kosice, Strazske-Humenne-Vranov, and Vojany are considered far less contaminated.

Middle Spis is a common name for the immission areas of the metal works in Krompachy town and iron ore mines at Rudnany. These immission areas overlap each other. In 1986, the metal works in Krompachy emitted some 20000 tonnes of SO₂, 1400 tonnes of dust, and 90 tonne of arsenic (As). Other heavy metals (Cu, Hg, Ni, Cd, Pb and Zn) are also present in the emitted dust. The situation has radically changed after substantial improvement of production technology leading to about 50% decrease in the emissions. The contaminated land area is estimated to about 11000 ha. At Rudnany, the worst problem was the mercury (Hg) production. Due to this, mercury was spread in the surroundings and is present in the soils, watercourses etc. The contaminated land area is not known but may be several thousands ha.

The aluminium works at Ziar and Hronom are sources of contamination with fluorine together with Hg and As. It is estimated, that the fluorine content exceed the limit (10 mg/kg) for about 3700 ha of land. In 1995, a new technology was introduced. Following this, substantial improvements regarding the contaminant emissions are expected.

Soil in the areas of two other regions (Jelsava-Lubenik and Hacava-Hnusta) is contaminated by Mg and some heavy metals from magnesit works. The contamination was caused by emissions of large amounts of dust sedimenting on the soil in the surroundings. All in all, it is estimated that in these two regions about 21000 ha of land is contaminated.

The lower Orava region is known for ferro-alloys factories (Istebné) in which about 13 different alloys were produced. At present new technologies are applied, but it is estimated that in the past emissions of primarily Cr and Mn caused the contamination of about 13000 ha of land.

In the region of upper Nitra, As and Hg are the main contaminants in areas surrounding the chemical factories and the local electric power station. At Kosice, soil is contaminated by some heavy metals due to emission of dust from iron works.

For all of the above-mentioned areas, SO₂ is also an important contaminant. At Ruzomberok, SO₂ is actually considered the main problem as the soils are only slightly contaminated by heavy metals. In all the regions also non-point sources for contamination exist.

Based on the present data, it is estimated that soil of about 180000 ha of land in Slovakia is contaminated on various levels. New recommendations for the use of such areas are elaborated at present. Regarding metals, the following elements are considered as risk elements: As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se and Zn.

Within the soil monitoring program, mostly PAHs have been detected. Other organic contaminants have been indicated sporadically (so called point by point local contamination).

Based on available data it is generally estimated that about 70% of Slovakian land are not contaminated. About 28% of the land is to be classified as risky as the content of one or more of the risk elements in the soil is above the A-values but lower than the B-values. Land where the content of risk elements in the soil is above the B-values is estimated about 1,4%, and land with soil contents above the C-values is estimated about 0,4%. As far as agricultural land is concerned it is estimated, that not more than 30000 ha is contaminated meaning that in general more forest soils are contaminated.

Concerning the former Soviet military sites, the most frequently occurring problems are usually kerosene, diesel and fuel contamination due to handling losses and leaking subsoil tanks, spills deriving from car maintenance facilities, and fuel stocks of garrisons.

Number of Registered Contaminated Sites / Contaminated Land Areas

There is no inventory of contaminated sites or land areas. However, the registration of contaminated sites of the former Soviet Army was made available.

A registration of landfills has been made. By 1996, 6370 waste landfills were registered, about 500 of these are still being in operation.

Investigation Methods

Identification of Potentially Contaminated Sites and Areas

Two programmes for a systematic identification of potentially contaminated sites have been established referring to:

	Potentially contaminated sites of the former Fuel Monopoly Benzinol.
	Potentially contaminated sites at former Soviet military sites.

In both cases, the obtained data were not joined to central information systems.

For the former Soviet military sites, the first pre-assessment activities started with the withdrawing of the Soviet Union forces under the supervision of a Czechoslovakian Commission between July and September 1991. The results of the pre-assessments were:

	87 potentially contaminated areas were identified at 18 military sites.
	13 out of the 18 military sites were further investigated.
	Based on the first results the remediation action (soil remediation, groundwater treatment, and hazardous waste disposal) has been undertaken.

The first pre-assessment of the former Soviet military sites included on-site visits to assess the different military land uses and the condition of the buildings. Based on the obtained findings, answers to the beneath aspects were deducted and integrated to a final report to the Ministry of Environment:

	Identification of potentially contaminated sites.
	Estimation of the contaminated soil volume.
	Identification of the source of contamination.
	Type of contamination.
	Concentration of contaminants.
	Definition of appropriate remediation technologies.
	Definition of target values for remediation.

Concerning the Slovakian military sites, the Dutch Ministry of Defence in 1990 - 93 supported a programme to identify potentially contaminated sites at military sites of the former Czechoslovakian Army. In total, 57 military sites were pre-assessed, and 2 sites were investigated in more detail. The pre-assessment included a standard questionnaire, and the collection of historical data.

Investigation of Contaminated Sites and Areas

At the former Soviet military sites, 87 potentially contaminated areas at 18 sites were selected for detailed investigations. Samples were collected from soil, groundwater, surface waters, and disposed wastes.

Soil samples were collected from the soil surface and from drillings made for the set-up of groundwater monitoring wells. Groundwater samples were collected from existing wells at the sites or in the vicinity. In specific cases new groundwater wells were set-up for continuos monitoring. The most frequently applied chemical parameter for the sample analysis was the content of total hydrocarbons followed by phenols, cyanides, aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons. For the investigation of hygienic conditions microbiological methods were frequently applied, especially examination for faeces bacteria.

For the Slovakian military sites, it is previewed to investigate the sites on a step by step basis:

1. Detailed investigations and risk assessment.
2. Remediation activities if necessary.

Facilities for Contaminated Soil

Handling and Treatment of Excavated Contaminated Soil

For the treatment of contaminated soil, several technologies have been applied (bioremediation and disposal).

Measures Used by Remediation of Soil and Groundwater Contamination

For the former Soviet military sites, the pre-assessment reports included recommendations for clean-up measures. The general procedure is to remove the source of contamination, usually removal of tanks, fixing of leaking pipelines, and removal of unsafe waste disposals.

The most frequently applied remediation technologies for soil contamination are:

	Excavation and disposal of excavated soil.
	On-site microbiological treatment of excavated soil.
	Off-site microbiological treatment of excavated soil.

The most frequently applied technologies for groundwater contamination are:

	Groundwater draining.
	Groundwater extraction and separation of free oil phase.
	Groundwater extraction and stripping of VOCs.
	Set-up of groundwater barriers (after extraction of contaminated groundwater).

The Slovakian Ministry of Defence is liable for the contamination at all military sites.

With respect to the former Soviet military sites a special national fund was established. Regarding the military sites of the former Czechoslovakian Army and those of the current Slovakian National Army clean-up measures have to be covered by the budget of the Ministry of Defence.

Several legal acts have been adopted in order to help new property owners – but in practice legal basis is not sufficient. Most of the historically polluted sites are in the ownership of the state (e.g. former Czechoslovakian military sites are now occupied by the Slovak Army).

Total clean-up costs concerning the environmental damage at the former Soviet military sites was estimated to amount to 44 million USD up to the year 2005. More than half of this amount (26 million USD) is exclusively dedicated to the clean-up of Sliac-Vlkanová site.

The annual public budget for the former Soviet military sites amounts only to 5 million USD per year.

At present Slovakia faces the common problems for all countries in transition: The decreasing of industrial activities, increasing of unemployment and worsening of soil management and farming. This is mostly due to restructuring of the industry and cancelling of some industrial programmes (steal industry, weapon industry) and due to lowering of the state subsidy to the farmers.

Illustrative Cases

The Sliac-Vlkanová site is one of the largest former Soviet military sites with the heaviest contamination. The identified contamination represents more than half of the total contamination of all former Soviet Union military sites in Slovakia. The site is situated in an important groundwater protection area and is located next to an important spring for mineral water. The site was used as airbase. It has been investigated in detail:

In total, 14 heavily contaminated spots have been identified, amounting approximately 130,000 m˛ and ~ 200,000 mł soil. Soil samples contained hydrocarbons with peak values of up to 16 g/kg. Apart from aliphatic hydrocarbons, contamination with chlorinated hydrocarbons was also found in the groundwater.

The first clean-up measures already started in 1981, being remedial pumping of groundwater and oil separation. After the withdrawing of the Soviet forces, remediation measures were improved.

Up to 1995 the total amount of kerosene separated from the groundwater amounted to 550,000 l.

Soil contaminated with hydrocarbons is excavated and biologically treated on site. After achievement of the remediation targets, the soil is usually refilled.

Groundwater extraction is carried out at 25 to 30 wells. The extracted groundwater is cleaned via oil separators, and filters with activated carbon. The treated groundwater is usually re-infiltrated at the site.

Clean-up measures are planned to continue to the year 2000.

Information provided by Jan Curlík at the Soil Fertility Research Institute in Slovakia. March and April, 1999.

Ad Hoc International Working Group on Contaminated Land (1998). Ad Hoc CEE Forum on Contaminated Land. Report of the Warsaw Meeting, September 18, 1998. Report from the Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape.

Curlík, J. & Šefcík, P. (in press). Geochemical Atlas of Slovakia – Soils (in printing).

Mankovská, B. (1996). Geochemical Atlas of Slovakia – Forest biomass. Geological Survey of
Slovakia, 87 p.

Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic (1998). Environment of the Slovak Republic. Folder from the 4^th Pan-European Conference of Environment Ministers.

POPIN (Population Information Network) (1999). The Demography of Countries with Economies in Transition. At gopher://gopher.undp.org/00/ungophers/popin/wdtrends.

Rapant, S., Vrana, K. & Bodiš, D. (1996). Geochemical Atlas of Slovakia – Groundwater. Geological Survey of Slovakia, 125p.

Schaefer, K.W., F. Bieren, et al. (1997). Internationale Erfahrungen der Herangehensweise an die Erfassung, Erkundung Bewertung und Sanierung Militärischer Altlasten. Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environment Agency), volume 1 and 2, Berlin, Germany.

State of the Environment Report Slovak Republic, 1995, 1996, and 1997. Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic and Slovak Environmental Agency.

UN/ECE Statistical Division (1998). Trends in Europe and North America. 1998 Statistical Yearbook of the UN/ECE. At http://www.unece.org/stats/trend/trend_h.htm. Based on figures from 1994 – 1997.

Vozár, J. et al. (1998). The evaluation of ecological bearing capacity of the Žiar nad Hronom region. Final Report. Ecological Laboratories r.s.o. at Spišská Nová Ves, 268 p.

The study on the Regional Environmental Management Plan for the Hron river basin in the Slovak Republic, 1999. Japan International Co-operation Agency and Slovak Environmental Agency of the Slovak Republic. 352 p.