Management of Contaminated Sites and Land in Central and Eastern Europe

Hungary

Country Characterisation

Economic growth, especially vigorous industrial development took place in Hungary without the constraints of strong environmental protection regulation up to the end of the seventies and the beginning of the eighties. Due to economical difficulties of this time, only insufficient means could be spent on environmental protection measures causing among others a gradual accumulation of non-degradable and of slowly degradable contaminants in soil and groundwater at many industrial sites. In Hungary, the environmental problems were recognised about ten years ago. Hard preparation work preceded the start of a remediation programme.

Contamination of soil and groundwater is obviously less perceptible than smoke-emitting factory chimneys, petrochemical city-smog, or dead fish in oil polluted river. But human health can be threatened by consumption of contaminated drinking water, garden grown vegetables etc. This long-term environmental damage constitutes one of the factors of environmental pollution that has an unfavourable effect on public health and, ultimately, life expectancy.

The first experience in Hungary in remediating environmental damage was directed at former Soviet military bases. In 1991, the Government made a short and medium term action plan identifying the tasks of surveying, assessing, and eliminating accumulated contamination present at abandoned Soviet barracks, training grounds and other military sites. The plan can be considered as the starting point for the remediation programme. The investigation of the abandoned sites showed that immediate clean-up measures were needed at 20 of the 171 sites. Now, the remediation of the most contaminated former Soviet military sites is expected to be complete within several years.

Soil and groundwater is contaminated if the concentration of the harmful substances exceed the threshold (B) limit values.

A soil and groundwater act is in preparation and will be passed by the end of this year. The policy documents as specified beneath are currently the most relevant for the management of contaminant soil and groundwater.

	The Environment Act LIII on the General Rules of Environmental Protection was in force in 1995. The Act can be seen as a key policy document, which stipulated a variety of decrees on specific environmental issues. The Act defines the administrative system of the execution of environmental law and defines measures to prevent pollution in the future. One of the key issues of the Act is the establishment of a license system based on the idea that the "use" of the environment needs appropriate control. Activities having significant impact on the environment require the completion of an Environmental Impact Assessment and to issue an Environmental License.
	The Privatisation Act of 1992. Before privatisation of public property, environmental damage and costs of necessary remediation activities need to be defined and liability issues to be clarified.
	The Remediation Act of 1991, which lays down the need for clean-up of 20 former Soviet military sites and the public funding of this.
	The National Environmental Programme of 1997, which was stipulated by the Environment Act, includes a National Remediation Programme.

The National Remediation Programme started in 1996 with the objective to assess contaminated areas, to identify and to eliminate environmental damage that falls within the scope of the Governments responsibility. The programme is implemented i three phases, which are:

	The short term phase (1996 - 1997).
	The medium term phase (1998 - 2002).
	The long term phase (2003 - about 20 years).

Included in the programme are only contaminated sites, for which the Hungarian state is responsible for the remediation. The main environmental elements to be investigated within this programme are soil and groundwater. In Hungary, promoting and safeguarding the quality of groundwater is extremely important as more than 90% of Hungary’s drinking water is based on groundwater abstraction.

The National Environmental Programme serves as uniform structure of different actions. Within this frame, the National Environmental Remediation Programme is connected to other environmental programmes:

	The Wellfield Protection Programme: The programme was adopted by the Government in 1995 and is aimed at securing both operating and prospective wellfields located in vulnerable environments. As part of the programme, protection zones for wellfields are determined. Within the protection zones, pollution sources are listed and monitoring zones are established. Decisions on measures aiming at securing the wellfield areas are made in consideration also of cost/benefit analysis of the relevant alternatives. The measures can include lean up of existing contamination in soil or groundwater as well as elimination of the cause of pollution.
	The National Environmental Health Action Plan (NEHAP): Within the frame of the action plan, a database on contaminated areas has been established aiming at evaluating environmental hygiene risks and considering local characteristics and possibilities. Results obtained from survey areas provide a fairly good basis for comprehensive prioritising along the National Remediation Programme.
	The Clean-up programme of the Hungarian Railway Company (MÁV Rt.): The clean-up programme was initiated in 1997. All registered contaminated sites of the railway company (railway stations, workshops etc.) are incorporated in the KÁRINFO database of the National Remediation Programme.
	The Mining Structure Conversion Programme (SZÉSZEK): The programme was started early on basis of a Government decision of 1991. About 1000 sites have been registered within this programme and the most critical sites have already been remediated. The registered sites of this programme are incorporated in the KÁRINFO database of the National Remediation Programme.
	The Industrial Park Programme: The programme was initiated in 1997 aiming at the reclamation of former industrial zones. It is noted that new industrial parks have also been created by reclamation of old mining properties within the above-mentioned mining programme. Available data from the Industrial Park Programme on old, contaminated industrial sites will be incorporated in the KÁRINFO database of the National Remediation Programme.
	The Military Sites Clean-up Programme: The programme is based on the work performed during the preparation of the framework of the National Environmental Remediation Programme. Since 1998, the Military Sites Clean-up Programme has been financed by the budget of the Ministry of Defence.
	The Governmental Property Privatisation Agency (ÁPV Rt.): Recently, the programme of the privatisation agency has been developed in different fields covering the rest of the former Soviet military properties.

The Hungarian environmental regulations have to be adjusted gradually to the EU standards. Recently, the Ministry for Environment has prepared a legislation draft, which contains the provision of the groundwater directive (80/68/EEC). Among others, it deals indirectly with discharge of contaminants into the groundwater, and in this respect, it also gives some provision about soil protection. It is a demand in Hungary to regulate the standards for proper groundwater quality.

The proposed Hungarian legislation includes the set up of a system of limit values for soil and groundwater:

	A: Background values.
	B: Threshold values of contamination.
	C: Threshold values of measures.
	D: Target values.

The complete system of limit values was proposed by an expert group considering the values found in the Dutch and German lists as well as Canadian values and guidelines issued by the US EPA. It is noted that the threshold values and the target values differ depending on the vulnerability of the aquifers.

Previously, for the most urgent clean-up measures the National Standards for agricultural soils were applied, which are, however, inherently conservative. The ABC values of the Dutch Standards have partly been applied for other clean-up activities. In many cases, the A values of the Dutch Standards were not applicable due to the high clean-up costs involved. Until the new legislation comes into force the Regional Environmental Inspectorates define clean-up criteria on a case-by-case basis.

The Ministry for Environment is responsible for the National Remediation Programme. It involves into the work of the Regional Environmental Inspectorates and the National Inspectorate for Environment and Nature Protection, which is a nation wide second stage authority.

The National Environmental Remediation Programme is co-ordinated by the Remediation Programme Office created in 1996 at the Institute for Environmental Management. The activities of the Remediation Programme Office are supervised by the Ministry for Environment.

Hungary has 12 regional environmental inspectorates, with about 1,200 employees. Each inspectorate is responsible for the enforcement of environmental law in its region. The regions of the inspectorates are defined according to catchment boundaries of the rivers and do not correspond to administrative regions. The tasks and functions of the environmental Inspectorates are laid down in the decree 211/1997 (XI. 26.). The regional environmental inspectorates are co-ordinated in their enforcement activities by the National Inspectorate for Environment and Nature Protection.

According to Act LIII on the General Rules of Environmental Protection, the Hungarian municipalities have a high degree of autonomy with regard to environmental issues. Their decisions are supervised by Offices for Public Administration.

The Hungarian Privatisation Agency and Public Holding (APV Rt.) is the responsible organisation for privatisation of public properties.

The Hungarian Finance and Property Agency has since 1995 been the public owner of the Soviet military sites. The agency operates in close co-operation with APV Rt. in the case of privatisation.

The main national task is the nation-wide registration of pollution sources and contaminated sites. A National Priority List of clean-up will be calculated yearly using the database.

Furthermore, regional environmental inspectorates are involved in the management of contaminated sites and land.

Among others, the National Environmental Remediation Programme deals with the nation-wide inventory of pollution sources and contaminated sites. Its database is the KÁRINFO database. The aim is to create a homogenous database of sites for remediation, and on this basis set up a national priority list of contaminated sites covering all kinds of responsibilities.

The KÁRINFO database is a comprehensive national database on contaminated sites. It was set-up with the objective to integrate results from different national programmes and is now in the developing phase.

Sources of Soil and Groundwater Contamination

Industry, agriculture, military activity, and urban human activity are the sources of soil and groundwater contamination.

Also, each Hungarian municipality has at least one municipal waste disposal site. Most of these sites are not equipped with any protection measures.

Industry and traffic pollute the soil and groundwater mostly with hydrocarbons and heavy metals.

Number of Registered Contaminated Sites / Contaminated Land Areas

The process of establishing a nation-wide inventory of pollution sources and contaminated sites has been initiated. The regional environmental inspectorates have filled in questionnaires distributed by the Remediation Programme Office. In the framework of the National Environmental Remediation Programme a preliminary database has been set up containing 173 contaminated sites. Investigations of soil and groundwater have been made at 23 of these. The expected distribution of types of contaminants at the 173 sites and the distribution of the same at the 23 sites are shown below.

The number of contaminated sites collected by the above mentioned sub-programmes and registered so far are about 600. At the same time, other 25,000 pollution sources and potentially contaminated sites have been identified and registered in the KÁRINFO database. These data are not sufficient for priority calculations. In the short term phase of the National Remediation Programme, different clean-up measures were carried out:

The remediation of contaminated sites was initiated with the abandoned military sites of the Soviet Army, which left 171 military sites, 340 settlements, and 6000 large buildings. Apart from the Soviet military sites there are a variety of military sites, which were run by the National Hungarian Army. After the withdrawing of the Soviet forces the number of these sites was significantly reduced. An enormous process of conversion was initiated. 75 shooting and test ranges were converted to civil land use, and 4 former Soviet military sites were declared national park.

The contamination at the 20 most contaminated Soviet military sites were investigated in detail. The former land use of the sites was 7 airfields, 1 helicopter base, 3 major fuel stocks, and 9 garrisons.

The identified contaminant types are listed in the order of importance and frequency of occurring:

1. Mineral oils, mainly at airfields, fuel stocks, and car repair shops. Kerosene, diesel and gas were most frequently identified. The total amount of soil and groundwater contaminated with hydrocarbons was estimated to amount to 2.7 - 3 million mł soil, and 1 - 1.2 million mł groundwater. The free hydrocarbon phase on the groundwater was estimated to amount to 5,500 - 6,000 mł.
2. Heavy metals, especially at shooting ranges. Among the most frequently occurring heavy metals were copper, lead, cadmium, chromium, and arsenic.
3. Uncontrolled waste disposal, leaking wastewater pits, and direct infiltration of wastewater into soil.

Among the 20 most contaminated Soviet military sites 8 was completely cleaned-up by the year 1996.

The contamination profiles identified at military sites of the National Hungarian Army are similar to those of the Soviet Army.

Investigation Methods

Identification of Potentially Contaminated Sites and Areas

The National Environmental Remediation Programme started in 1996. The major objective of the programme is the nation-wide registration of polluted areas and pollution sources.

A homogenous national database is in the developing phase (KÁRINFO).

The programme defines methodologies for soil and groundwater investigation. Proposed technologies for mapping, analytical methods and modelling of contaminants are aiming at the implementation of best available technologies (GPS, landset, GIS, geophysics, geochemistry, transport models etc.). Risk assessment is required for the determination of contamination priorities and hence the necessity of clean-up measures.

The identification of contaminated sites is connected to the various programmes as described in the section "Legislation".

	Facilities / premises of the Hungarian railway: Clean-up Programme of the Hungarian Railway Company).
	Facilities in sensible groundwater areas: Wellfield Programme.
	Military sites: Military Sites clean-up programme and Programme of the Privatisation Agency.
	Industrial sites: Programme of the Privatisation Agency and Industrial Park Programme.

A pre-assessment of the former Soviet military sites was carried out during 1990 - 91 in parallel with the withdrawing of the Soviet forces. The sites were classified as follows:

	Immediate clean-up measures necessary:   20 sites
	Immediate safety measures necessary:   62 bases
	Long-term measures necessary:   77 bases

The pre-assessment included:

	On-site visits.
	Assessment of available historical documents.
	If possible interviews with staff.
	Evaluation of aerial photographs.
	Geophysical methods to identify metal objects in the subsoil.
	Collection of groundwater samples.
	Limited soil sampling.

After the pre-assessment more detailed investigations were carried out and the number of sites of concern was reduced to 61 sites. Before 1995 detailed risk assessment had already been carried out at 18 sites.

The identification process was different for the military sites of the National Hungarian Army. In 1992 the Dutch Ministry of Defence supported a project concerning the identification of potentially contaminated sites at the properties of the National Hungarian Army. Along this project, 100 military sites were pre-assessed and for 2 exemplary risk-assessments were carried out.

In 1996, the Ministry for Environment started to set up a GIS supported land register for military sites at national parks. Each site was assessed and classified with a code. The code reflected the balance of the sensitivity of receiving environments (groundwater, surface water, air, and nature protection) versus environment measures at the site.

Investigation of Contaminated Sites and Areas

The usual investigation methods are drilling bore-holes, taking soil and groundwater samples, and testing the samples in laboratory. On the basis of the data of the contamination, proposals are given for the clean-up measures.

The National Environmental Clean-up Program was started in 1996. The strategy of the program is determined. It consists of a nation-wide registration of polluted areas and pollution sources. A homogeneous database is developed.

The methodology of investigation is prescribed for soil and groundwater contamination. Mapping, measuring and modelling (3M) concepts are used. The aim is to use the best available techniques (GPS, landset, GIS, geophysics, geochemistry, transport models etc.). For determining the priority of the remediation process, environmental risk assessment is calculated.

Handling and Treatment of Excavated Contaminated Soil

Excavated soil contaminated with hydrocarbons is cleaned up mostly by on-site or ex-situ bioremediation methods, or rarely with thermal desorption based processes. Other methods, like soil washing or solidification have not been used so far.

Measures Used by Remediation of Soil and Groundwater Contamination

For the treatment of soil contaminated with hydrocarbons, biological technologies are usually applied. Either in situ soil venting or soil excavation and on-site treatment is used. The most widely used clean-up measures for groundwater and soil contaminated by hydrocarbons are:

Groundwater:

	Dual-phase extraction of free phase oil and contaminated groundwater.
	Separate extraction of free phase contamination by use of skimmer systems.
	Air stripping used for cleaning contaminated groundwater.
	Activated carbon filtration of contaminated groundwater.
	Installation of slurry walls.

Soil:

	In-situ bioremediation.
	Extraction of soil vapour by venting.
	Land farming.
	Ex situ bioremediation.

For heavy metals contamination, excavation of contaminated soil is widely used.

Investigation and Remediation Activities

In general, the polluter pays principle is applied. In the case of public property, the current landowner is liable for environmental damage at his property.

Investigation and remediation of contaminated sites by the National Environmental Remediation Programme is intended only for cases, when no person or firm can be held responsible. The new environmental law stipulates that, if no person can be made responsible, the Government will be responsible for eliminating the consequences of significant environmental damage. This is the case, when the polluter is unknown, or the presumed polluter can not be proved to be responsible.

For cases, where an enterprise has been terminated without a legal successor, or the liquidation is ongoing and the assets are insufficient for cleaning up the environmental damages, clean-up measures must be made within the framework of the National Environmental Remediation Programme.

With respect to the Soviet military sites, all sites were handed over to the State of Hungary. A variety of sites were privatised and hence the liability was transferred to the new owner. In some cases owners were exempted from the liability. In 1995 all the remaining properties were handed over to the Hungarian Finance and Property Administration. A private company was assigned to take care of remediation and investigation activities at these sites.

The National Remediation Programme initiated by the Governmental Decision 2205/1996 (VII. 24) deals with the remediation of contaminated sites of state responsibility. Among others, the Decision states that the financing of the program will be determined yearly. Ordered by the central budget law, the yearly budget of the National Remediation Programme, co-ordinated directly by the Ministry for Environment, is separated from the income made by privatisation. In the period of 1996 – 98, yearly 1 billion HUF (about 4 million USD), and in the year 1999, 1.5 billion HUF, was allocated for the program. For the so called "sub-programmes" – financing remediation activities of other ministries – in total value, more than 50 million USD is separated in 1999.

Legal Requirements re. Polluters and Site Owners

Under certain conditions, the law stipulates a joint responsibility of the polluter and the owner of the area in which the activity causing the pollution is or was pursued. This provision will, in the long run, increase the chance of having the responsible persons, and thereby not the Government, pay for eliminating environmental damage.

Concerning the privatisation of former Soviet military sites, there are two possibilities to deal with environmental liability. In both cases the decision needs the approval of the Ministry of Finance.

	The new investor can be totally exempted from the environmental liability concerning historic contamination.
	The price of a property can be reduced in the case of contamination. In this case, the costs of the necessary remedial activities are estimated and deducted from the market value of the property.

The costs for the necessary remediation activities and the time frame are specified on a case by case basis and are under the supervision of the regional environment inspectorates.

About 20% of the known contaminated sites are located within protection zones of waterworks in operation. Remediation of these has the highest priority. All in all, costs for remediation of contaminated sites located in protection zones of operating waterworks amounts to about 100 billion HUF (about 500 million US$).

Along the National Environmental Programme total clean-up costs for all contaminated sites of concern have been estimated to exceed 1 billion US$. In the first 2 years of the remediation programme, the annual budgets were about 7 million US$, partly retrieved from privatisation revenues.

For 82 Soviet bases, ad hoc measures have been estimated to amount to 20 million US$. Long term measures were estimated to need another 130 million US$. Up to the year 1996 about 8 million US$ were spent on clean-up measures.

Economic interests are very important. Pollution prevention is usually less expensive than clean-up measures.

Contaminated sites are usually impairment to regional development because they are difficult to sell. The reclamation of former industrial areas has stimulating effects on the economy and the employment of the affected region.

Illustrative Cases

Due to heavy metals contamination of soil in areas surrounding the Metallochemia factory located in the southern part of Budapest, the local health authority closed down the factory in May 1990. This was the first time in Hungary that enterprise activities were stopped because of the pollution caused by the activities.

Activities at the Metallochemia plant started in 1910. At the beginning, recovery of lead containing materials was performed. Later copper electrolysis and melting were carried out. The key activities at the plant were production of lead articles and copper alloys and recovery of battery wastes.

In 1992, the regional environmental inspectorate ordered a site assessment and remediation of the site. The Metallochemia site is of the owner’s responsibility and therefore does not belong to the National Remediation Programme.

Shortly after the closure of the plant activities, investigations of soil contamination were made covering:

	The Metallochemia plant area covering about 11,5 ha.
	A dumpsite at the Metallochemia area covering about 9,0 ha and containing approximately 220000 m3 of slag and other waste materials.
	The surroundings of Metallochemia within a radius of about 1500 m corresponding to an area of a little more than 7 km2.

By the investigations it was found that the slag in the waste material at the dumpsite had high contents of lead, zinc and copper. Penetration of the heavy metals contamination in the original soils below the waste material was found in the upper 1 m of the original soils. Contamination was also found in the groundwater, but this was limited to the Metallochemia area.

At the Metallochemia plant area backfill of sand, debris, slag and cinder was found with a thickness up to about 2 m. Generally, the backfill is covered by concrete preventing direct contact and also rainwater infiltration through the backfill. It is estimated that the penetration of the heavy metals contamination in the original soils below the plant area is rather limited.

Lead was found to be the most critical contaminant in the soil in the areas surrounding the Metallochemia factory. The centre of the contamination in these areas was located between 250 to 600 m east to south-east of the Metallochemia factory in the prevailing direction of wind. On average, a 150 mgPb/kg d.m. contour line is estimated to be situated somewhere between 1250 and 1400 m south east of the Metallochemia factory. For lead and other metals, a distinct decrease of content with depth has been found for approximately the upper 0,6 m soil. It was estimated that about 108000 m³ soil is contaminated with lead in concentration of more than 600 mgPb/kg d.m., about 255000 m³ soil contain 250 - 600 mgPb/kg d.m., and about 130000 m³ soil contain 150 - 250 mgPb/kg d.m.

Based on the investigation results, restoring of the multifunctionality of the soil in the areas must be ignored as a practical solution. For the Metallochemia area, isolation has been considered as the best rehabilitation method possibly consisting of establishment of an impermeable cover layer, cut-off walls fencing the horizontal groundwater flow, and remedial pumping of groundwater within the isolated area.

In the surroundings of the Metallochemia factory, removal of the contaminated soil seems to be the best solution. Removed soil from these areas can be stored on the surface of the plant dumpsite.

Preceding the remediation, a number of interim measures can be taken aiming at reducing the existing risk for public health posed by the present contamination e.g.:

	Within the zone surrounding the Metallochemia factory where lead concentrations exceed 150 mgPb/kg d.m. privately grown crops should not be eaten.
	Groundwater in the area should not be used for drinking water purposes.
	In the areas west of the Metallochemia factory crops grown on commercial basis should be monitored in order to detect any unacceptable contamination.

Information provided by Eva Deseö at the Ministry for Environment and Zsolt Horvath at the National Authority for the Environment Protection and Natural Conservation in Hungary. March and April 1999.

Information provided by Eva Deseö at the Ministry for Environment and Zsolt Horvath at the National Authority for the Environment Protection and Natural Conservation in Hungary. June 14-15, 1999. Supplementary information provided by Eva Deseö at the Ministry for Environment. July 8, 1999.

Ad Hoc International Working Group on Contaminated Land (1998). Papers from the International Workshop on Land Recovery and Man-Made Risks held in Vienna, November 16-18, 1998.

Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy (1997). Environmental Remediation (Clean-up) Program, Information Brochure. Budapest, Hungary.

Ministry of the Environment (1998). National Environmental Program 1997 - 2002. ISBN 963 03 5563 9. Republic of Hungary, Budapest.

NATO/CCMS Pilot Study (1998). Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment of Contaminated Land and Groundwater (Phase III). 1998 Annual Report.

POPIN (Population Information Network) (1999). The Demography of Countries with Economies in Transition. At gopher://gopher.undp.org/00/ungophers/popin/wdtrends.

Schaefer, K.W., F. Bieren, et al. (1997). Internationale Erfahrungen der Herangehensweise an die Erfassung, Erkundung Bewertung und Sanierung Militärischer Altlasten. Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environment Agency), volume 1 and 2, Berlin, Germany.

UN/ECE Statistical Division (1998). Trends in Europe and North America. 1998 Statistical Yearbook of the UN/ECE. At http://www.unece.org/stats/trend/trend_h.htm. Based on figures from 1994 – 1997.