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Paradigm for Substance Flow Analyses
Appendix 1
Standard Reporting Outline of Substance Flow Analyses Carried out for the Danish EPA
Table of Contents
2 Main Structure of the Outline
3 Detailed Explanation of the Outline
3.1 'Preface'
3.2 'Summary and Conclusions (Summary in English)'
3.3 '1. Introduction'
3.3.1 '1.1 Purpose of the Analysis'
3.3.2 '1.2 Methodology and Limitations'
3.3.3 '1.3 What is <the substance>?'
3.3.4 '1.4 International Market and Trend in Consumption'
3.4 '2. Application in Denmark'
3.4.1 '2.1 Raw Materials and Semi-Manufactured Goods'
3.4.2 '2.2 Fields of Application'
3.4.3 '2.3 Consumption as Trace Element and Contaminant'
3.5 '3. Turnover with Waste Products'
3.5.1 '3.1 Recycling of the Substance'
3.5.2 '3.2 Other Turnover with Solid Waste'
3.5.3 '3.3 Turnover with Chemical Waste'
3.5.4 '3.4 Turnover with Wastewater and Sewage Sludge'
3.5.5 '3.5 Summary'
3.6 '4. Evaluation'
3.6.1 '4.1 Fields of Application and Consumption in Denmark'
3.6.2 '4.2 Discharge to the Environment in Denmark'
3.6.3 '4.3 Substance Balance in Denmark'
3.7 'References'
3.8 'Appendices'
3.8.1 Scenarios for Future Loss of the Substance
3.8.2 Occurrence and Fate in the Environment
3.8.3 National and EU legislation on Use Restriction
3.8.4 Assessment of Substitutes
3.8.5 Recycling, Downcycling and Material Deterioration
1 Introduction
This appendix contains the standard outline of a substance flow analysis (SFA) carried out for the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. The aim of the outline is to ensure the uniformity and comparability of the conducted studies.
The outline covers the substance flow from import and extraction of raw materials to the final disposal of residual products from waste treatment plants etc.
The outline should be regarded as a framework which can and should be adjusted to match the intended level of detail of the analysis and the patterns of application and flow of the chemical substance in question.
This appendix starts off by presenting the overall structure (cf. Chapter 2) followed by a detailed description of the individual sections with indication of the information and evaluations to be included in each section of the report.
2 Main Structure of the Outline
The main structure of the outline appears from Box A1.
Box A1
Main structure of the outline
| Preface Summary and Conclusions in Danish and English
1. Introduction
2. Application in Denmark
3. Turnover with Waste Products
4. Evaluation References Appendices |
The 'core SFA' is contained in Chapters 1 to 4 and organised, as explained below.
Preface
The preface contains information about the project; client, steering group, working group, etc.
Summaries
Summaries in both English and Danish should be prepared according to the standard outlines of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Preface and summaries has no chapter numbers.
Chapter 1
Chapter 1 contains a general introduction to the analysis and the substance in question. The chapter include an introduction to the methodology, describe the substance or substance group and gives information on the international market and trends in consumption. The International market for the substance may be covered by an analysis at overview or detailed level.
Chapter 2
Chapter 2 contains a specification of raw materials and semi-manufactured goods as well as actual fields of application. The fields of application are divided into 'intended fields of application' and 'application as trace element and contaminant'. The intended fields of application include all fields of application where intentional utilisation of the properties of the chemical substance takes place. Application as trace element and contaminant includes unintentional applications where the substance occurs as trace element or contaminant in other substances and products, or where small quantities of the substance are formed as a result of industrial processes.
Based on the division into fields of application, the consumption is specified for each field and an assessment of likely losses is made. The assessment of turnover and losses should be pursued as far as practically possible, i.e. as far as it is reasonable to consider each field of application seperately.
As regards certain products - particularly in the application as trace element in coal, oil etc. - it will be possible to consider each product individually through the entire life cycle. In that case, it should be done as part of the description of the different fields of application contained in chapter 3.
As regards industrial products, it is usually only possible to consider the individual products in isolation as far as production and use are concerned. The distinction between fields of applications cannot be maintained when it comes to waste treatment, as the existing data on discharges and losses concerning this part of the life cycle normally represent a mixture of products.
For instance, the emission of lead to air from waste incineration plants originates in a number of different lead-containing products. No knowledge exists about the exact significance of the individual product, and it would therefore be wrong to specify the loss to air caused by incineration for each individual product. On the other hand, it does make sense to calculate the amount of lead directed to combustible waste in different groups of products, and thereby, estimate the probable significance of each group of products for the emission caused by incineration of waste.
Chapter 3
Accordingly, the turnover and losses by waste treatment are discussed jointly in Chapter 3. This discussion also serves to cross-check the estimates of losses to waste, wastewater etc. made for the individual fields of application in Chapter 2.
Chapter 4
Chapter 4 puts the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle together, estimating the total consumption and loss to the environment and setting up the total substance balance for Denmark. In this chapter, comparisons can also be made with previous surveys and foreign analyses, if considered relevant.
Appendices
The appendices contain additional statistical data and optional extensions of the analysis.
3 Detailed Explanation of the Outline
The detailed explanation of the outline contained in this chapter follows the main structure shown in Box A1, in that the sections of this Chapter correspond to the main structure.
3.1 'Preface'
The preface of the report should be kept short (about 1 page) and include the following subjects:
 | Background |
| Client, financing |
| Acknowledgements |
| Composition of steering committee/reference group |
| Authors of the report |
Background
The reason for carrying out the analysis should be specified shortly. Is it an update of a previous analysis or is the substance considered problematic in a specific context?
A more detailed description of the purpose of the analysis and international commitments and obligations as regards the use and emissions of the substance should be included in chapter '1 Introduction'.
Client, financing
Specification of the party (or parties) responsible for initiating and financing the analysis.
Acknowledgements
Persons and institutions which has contributed substantially may be acknowledged here.
Steering Committee/Reference Group
The composition of the Steering Committee or Reference Group should be specified. In principle, all members should be mentioned by name and institution. As regards large-scale investigations comprising many representatives of a large number of institutions, however, it is acceptable to just mention the names of the institutions.
Authors
The authors of the report should be listed by name and institution. This is important to accommodate readers wishing to seek further information.
3.2 'Summary and Conclusions (Summary in English)'
Summaries in both English and Danish should in principle be prepared according to the standard outline of the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. These outlines can be find in /Danish EPA 1999/. It is, however, recommended to make an extended summary in English if the report is in Danish and vice versa.
In the following the content of the short summary is described according to the standard outlines of the Danish EPA by the fall 1999, but these outlines are revised now and then.
Purpose
The purpose of the summary is to provide an adequate briefing about the report and its content to the reader willing to invest about half an hour reading it.
Outline
The chapter should according to the standard outline be divided into:
| Menu |
| Background and aim of the project |
| The survey |
| Main conclusions |
| Main results |
The content of the first four sections is well described in the standard outlines and only the content of the section 'Main results' will be discussed here.
If the analysis cover both consumption and discharges to the environment, it is recommended that ' Main results' is based on:
| A figure providing an overview of imports/exports, consumption, discharges to the environment etc. regarding the substance in question. This figure could be built up along the lines of Figure A2 shown below, which is a simplified version of Figure A2 in section 3.6. |
| A table showing the total consumption by main fields of application in absolute (tonnes/year) as well as relative (%) figures. |
| A table specifying the release to the environment by sources as well as recipients (air, water, soil, landfills). |
In addition the probable trends in consumption and release should be discussed.
If the analysis include optional extensions, a short summary of these should also be included in the 'Main results' section.
Extended summary
The extended summary is recommended to be identical to the short summary except for the section 'Main results'.
Instead of the overview figure shown in Figure A1 it is recommended to include a more detailed figure similar to in Figure A2 in chapter 3.6. When using the detailed figure the table specifying the release to the environment by sources can be excluded.
In addition it is recommended to include tables showing the sources of the substance to solid waste and wastewater.
Figure A1
Example of figure providing an overview of the situation (lead balance for
Denmark 1994 - tonnes lead/year /1/)
3.3 '1. Introduction'
The 'Introduction' includes all information considered relevant as background for the understanding and interpretation of the succeeding SFA.
The extent of the introduction will depend on whether the SFA covers a single relatively well-known element or it covers a complex group of chemical substances.
3.3.1 '1.1 Purpose of the Analysis'
Background The reason for carrying out the analysis (goal definition) should be specified here in more detail. If the substance is considered problematic in a specific context it should be mentioned. The section should be kept short.
International commitments and obligations as regards use and emissions of the substance should be included in the description of the background.
3.3.2 '1.2 Methodology and Limitations'
A description of the methodology of the analysis can more or less be covered by a reference to this paradigm. If a specific research methodology has been used it should be mentioned.
Interpretation
Interpretation of the intervals used for representation of all figures should be specified. What is actually meant by the sentence: ' The total consumption of the substance with application xx is estimated at 200-400 tonnes'. Furthermore, the reference year (or other space of time covered) should be specified.
If a specific level of detail has been defined in advance, this should also be stated.
Focus areas
If the analysis focus on specific parts of the life cycle (se main report about focus areas) the focus area should be specified along with the specification of areas that may be covered with less detail.
3.3.3 '1.3 What is <the substance>?'
The sections gives a short introduction to the substance or substance group. The introduction includes relevant physical/chemical properties of the substance or substances.
If the substance is an element the section may also include information on relevant chemical compounds.
If the substance is a complex group of organic substances the section may be supplemented with an appendix with physical/chemical properties of all substances.
3.3.4 '1.4 International Market and Trends in Consumption'
The international market assessment may be carried out at two levels:
| Overview assessment |
| Detailed assessment (optional) |
The overview assessment is considered part of the core-SFA.
Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to provide information on the market of the substance in an international perspective. The exact content of the chapter will depend on the level of detail defined for the chapter, which may be different from the level of detail for the 'core SFA'.
The information on the consumption of the substance at global or European level may along with other sources be used for the estimation of the consumption of the substance with imported products. In addition the chapter makes the basis for a comparison of the Danish consumption of the substance to the consumption in other countries, especially EU Member States.
Structure
There is no general international trade statistics and it is consequently not possible exactly to define which information should be included in this chapter, but it can be defined which information sources should be searched.
Overview analysis
To the extent information is available the chapter should contain the following information.
| Global production and consumption by application areas (in tabular form) |
| Global trends in consumption |
| European and EU consumption by application areas (in tabular form) |
Global trends in consumption
For the understanding of the global trends in consumption it may be necessary to discuss specific issues regarding the extraction/production of the substance and global market mechanisms. For heavy metals it may e.g. be relevant to discuss whether the metal is extracted as a by-product by the extraction of other metals.
Detailed analysis (optional)
The detailed analysis should beside the information included in the overview analysis also include the following topics to the extent information is available:
| Short review of substance flow analysis or consumption assessments from Sweden, Norway and The Netherlands including comparison with the Danish results. |
| Detailed information about the global and European market for the substance based on international market analyses. |
An example of an analysis containing detailed information about the global and European market for the substance based on international market analyses can be found in substance flow analysis for brominated flame retardants (Lassen et al. 1999 B).
Information sources, overview analyses
If the substance is an element or a mineral, information on global production, consumption by application area and market trends should be summarised from at least Mineral Commodity Summaries and Mineral Yearbook (see. chapter 4.2 of main report).
In addition information should be searched from the encyclopaedias Kirk Othmer and Ullmann's and from reports specifically covering the substance in question from OECD, WHO, EU, UNEP and relevant international trade organisations (see chapter 4 of main report).
Information sources, detailed analyses
For the detailed analyses additional information should be received from international market reports if available and from assessments carried out in neighbouring countries (see section 4.2 of main report).
The results of the assessments in neighbouring countries should if included here be discussed together with the Danish results in Chapter '4. Evaluation'.
3.4 '2. Application in Denmark'
3.4.1 '2.1 Raw Materials and Semi-Manufactured Goods'
Purpose
The purpose of this section is to provide information on the supply of raw materials and semi-manufactured goods as registered by Statistics Denmark and discuss how these figures corresponds to the estimated consumption of raw materials for each field of application in Section 3.2 'Fields of Application'.
This section should be included in the report if there is Danish production or import to Denmark of the substance as a raw material or a semi-manufactured product. If the substance is only imported to Denmark with finished product this section is not needed and should not be included in the report.
The terms 'raw materials and semi-manufactured goods' refer here to the substance in its pure form as well as chemical compounds or alloys of which the substance constitutes a significant part. Materials and alloys of which the substance constitutes only a very small proportion do not need to be included in this section.
Production, import and export of scrap and waste products should not be included in this chapter, but included in chapter "3. Turnover with Waste Products':
Content
The information and evaluations to be included and carried out in this section include:
| The information available from Statistics Denmark about the year(s)
covered by the analysis concerning production in Denmark as well as the
import and export of raw materials and semi-manufactured goods shown in
tabular form. In principle, the following information should be included
for each raw material/semi-manufactured product: - Commodity item number and description of the goods - Registered production, imports and exports of the goods - Estimated average content of the substance in the goods - Estimated supply of the substance with the relevant goods |
As background for the discussion of the data, statistical information regarding production, import and export for at least a 5-year period is included in an appendix (see section 3.7).
|
If a great number of different raw materials and semi-manufactured goods
are registered by Statistics Denmark, it may often be advisable to present
the detailed statistical information in an appendix, and provide a summary
of this information in the table included in this section. It may also be
appropriate to separate information about different types of raw
materials/semi-manufactured goods. As regards heavy metals, for instance,
it may be relevant to distinguish between pure metal/alloys and chemical
compounds. |
|
For each type of raw material/semi-manufactured goods, the relevant
fields of application should then be specified. In the case of raw
materials that are used for many different purposes, it may be appropriate
to draw up a specific table to summarise the information about fields of
application. If there are raw-materials/semi-manufactured goods for which
the fields of application are not known, this should also be indicated. |
|
Subsequently, indication should be made of the losses to waste and
wastewater and release to the environment, which occur as a result of the
production of raw materials and semi-manufactured goods in Denmark. In
this context, only raw materials and semi-manufactured goods used for
several different purposes should be commented on. To the extent that the
production of raw materials and semi-manufactured goods is used for one
type of finished product only, the assessment of losses and release should
be placed under the relevant finished product in the 'Fields of
application' section (a reference to the relevant subsection should be
included to assist the reader in forming a general view of the situation). |
| Finally, an assessment should be made as to whether there is reasonable coherence between the consumption of the substance with raw materials/semi-manufactured goods and the estimated consumption for different fields of application. It should also be discussed whether inconsistencies if any can be explained by changes in stocks or something else. |
It should be noted that some of these assessments are based on data, which are introduced in subsequent chapters. In view of the fact that the assessments focus on the supply of raw materials it has, however, been considered appropriate to gather these assessments in this section.
Double accounting
As mentioned in the previous section the same materials may be processed several times and registered more times under the same item number in the statistics from Statistics Denmark. By way of example imported aluminium profiles are cut into shorter profiles in Denmark. The same profiles are thus registered as both imported and produced. For an estimation of the supply of aluminium profiles for further production processes in Denmark it has been necessary to take this into account /see Lassen et al. 1999 A/.
3.4.2 '2.2 Fields of Application'
This section goes through the intended fields of application one by one describing the turnover of the substance in the production and consumption phases. Depending on the pattern of application it may be relevant to have more sections on intended fields of application. Concerning metals, it would, for instance, be reasonable to include a section 2.2 covering the substance as pure metal and in alloys and a section 2.3 covering chemical compounds.
Each of these sections may be divided into a number of subsections each covering a field of application.
It is recommended to start out with the field of application with the largest consumption of the substance, followed by the application with the second largest consumption, etc. The last subsections most often covers 'other fields of applications'; applications not specifically discussed in the preceding subsections. By detailed analyses 'other fields of applications' should be kept to a minimum and account for less than 20% of the total consumption of the substance for intended purposes.
For each field of application, the following aspects should be covered:
| Description of the field of application and relevant finished products |
| Production in Denmark |
| Imports/exports of finished products |
| Consumption of finished products in Denmark |
| Trends in consumption and stock building in society |
| Alternatives (optional) |
| Losses to waste, wastewater and the environment during production |
| Losses to waste, wastewater and the environment during the use of the product |
| Final disposal of used products including recycling |
| Exposure during use and disposal (optional) |
If appropriate a level four of headings could be applied to include each of the listed aspects.
Description
The description should be kept short (max. 1 page per field of application) and precise. It should indicate the included finished products and fields of application as well as the function of the substance in the products. Furthermore, the various technical conditions relevant for the understanding should be explained. If the substance is used in alloys or compounds, the composition of these should be specified. Concerning products in which the substance is evenly distributed in the product/material (e.g. pigments in plastics), it may also be relevant to specify the concentration of the substance in the actual finished product.
Production in Denmark
The industrial processes taking place in Denmark should be described, including specification of the finished products manufactured in Denmark, and if possible, the number of enterprises involved. Furthermore, it should be specified what raw materials/semi-manufactured goods are utilised as well as the consumption of the substance in raw materials/semi-manufactured goods and the quantity of the substance contained in the finished products. This information will typically have to be obtained from the manufacturers. If the information is not readily available, but has to be calculated on the basis of a number of assumptions, both the assumptions and the calculations must be described in detail.
Imports/exports
Estimates must be made of the import and export of the substance in finished products. Typically, this estimate will be based on statistical information about the import/export of relevant finished products combined with the calculated average content of the substance in these products. The basis of calculations as well as the actual calculations must be explained in detail.
Consumption in Denmark
The consumption in Denmark with finished product can then be calculated as Danish production + imports - exports; summarised for all finished products.
There may be some confusion about the definition of consumption in Denmark. Note that 'consumption in Denmark' in general covers the consumption of the substance in Denmark with finished products. (see the discussion in section 2.3.3).
Trends in consumption and stock building
It should be indicated whether the consumption is increasing, decreasing or stagnant. If the field of application covers several types of finished products, it may be relevant to assess each type of finished product separately. If available, historical consumption data about the consumption may also be included. In the case of finished products with a long in-service lifetime, it would be advisable to estimate the extent of stock building in society of the substance as part of these products. This estimate will constitute an important basis for the calculation of losses related to the use of these products (cf. below: 'losses by utilisation'). More detailed analysis of the historical consumption used for scenarios of future disposal and emission may be included as an optional extension (se section 3.7.1)
Substituxtes (optional)
If the SFA includes the optional extension 'Assessment of substitutes' (see section 3.7.4) a short review may be included here.
Losses by manufacture
By manufacturing processes in Denmark, there may be losses of the chemical substance to chemical waste, solid waste, wastewater, the atmosphere and presumably also soil. The losses are calculated as the actual discharges from the enterprises after treatment, if any. The size of these losses after treatment should be estimated and it should be indicated how final disposal of the waste and treatment residues takes place. Furthermore, estimates should be made of the volumes of the chemical substance collected for recycling, if any.
The main sources of information will be the enterprises, themselves. It is also possible to use information about typical loss and emission factors, which may be obtained from literature or from specialists at research institutions. In some cases, information may be available from supervisory authorities, Kommunekemi (the Danish Treatment Facility for Chemical Waste) and treatment plants who possess knowledge about the discharges or receive residual products.
It will, normally, be very difficult to estimate the losses to soil as these are diffuse losses of dust etc. which normally cannot be or are not measured. It is therefore acceptable not to estimate the size of these losses but only indicate whether there is reason to expect significant losses to soil as a result of manufacture. For enterprises with poor facilities for air purification, a significant proportion of the emission to air may consist of particles, which will cause increased deposition of the chemical substance in the area surrounding the enterprise. If considered relevant and possible, this neighbourhood deposition may be calculated and included in the estimate as losses to soil instead of losses to air. Normally, there will not be sufficient resources to carry out estimates going into such detail within the framework of SFAs.
Losses by use
The size of losses by use of the products depends on the nature of the finished products and fields of application. Some products (e.g. washing powder) are lost 100% while being used (residues may be deposited with the packaging). Other products are subject to a certain degree of wear and tear or corrosion, but will be practically intact at the time of disposal.
The estimate of the losses during use requires both information about relevant emission factors and information about the volume of products accumulated in the society. The loss by use is calculated as the total loss of the substance from products in use during the reference year independent on the age of the products. In practise, losses by use can only be estimated with a high degree of uncertainty (cf. disposal).
Disposal
The quantities of the substance discharged to waste, wastewater etc. or recycled by discarded products should be estimated. If the consumption is stagnant and has been so for a period of time exceeding the in-service life of the products in question, the estimate may be based on the present consumption (subtracted the losses by utilisation), and supplemented by an assessment of the probable disposal method.
It is relevant to distinguish between the following waste fractions (cf. Chapter '3. Turnover with Waste Products'):
| Combustible solid waste |
| Organic solid waste |
| Waste collected for recycling |
| Chemical waste |
| Other solid waste |
| Wastewater |
If there is a clear increase or decrease in the consumption, it will be necessary to base the estimate on historical consumption data from a range of years corresponding to the in-service lifetime of the finished products. Such calculations are rough estimates, which will be subject to a high degree of uncertainty. However, these calculation are necessary to carry out cross-checks of the volumes of waste collected etc. For this reason alone, the estimates are valuable in spite of the uncertainties.
Exposure (optional)
A qualitative description of the exposure of man by use and disposal of finished products is an optional extension of the SFA. The description should focus on the use and disposal phases. Both consumer and occupational health issues in connection with the use and disposal of the products should be covered, whereas occupational health in connection with the production of raw materials and manufactured products is excluded.
The description should include:
| Evidence of emission of the substance to the indoor or outdoor environment by use or disposal of the product. |
| Evidence of exposure of man to the substance by the use or disposal of products. Exposure includes both exposure by inhalation (gasses and particulates), by skin contact and by food contact. |
| Possible substantial exposures not confirmed by analysis |
When describing possible exposures it is relevant to distinguish between exposure by 'good practice' and by 'reasonable worst case'. Good practice is application of the products in accordance with the guidelines given by authorities or producers; whereas ' reasonable worst case' includes common deviations from these guidelines. Exposures by 'reasonable foreseeable misuse' where the products are used unwarrantably should not be included.
Summary of the entire section
At the end of the entire section, there should be a subsection including a short summary based on a table indicating for each field of application the present consumption, trends, annual recycling as well as annual loss of the substance to air, soil, water/wastewater, solid waste, chemical waste and others. This summary helps the reader maintain an overall view of the situation. At the same time, the summary is valuable to the author, as it serves as a checklist (have all relevant issues been dealt with?).
3.4.3 '2.3 Consumption as Trace Element and Contaminant'
For most substances there are a turnover of the substance as natural trace element or anthropogenic contaminant in other products. Although the substance is not intendedly consumed this turnover will be designated 'consumption as trace element and contaminant'.
This section cover relevant fields of consumption explaining the turnover of the chemical substance in the production and consumption phases as well as, if relevant, throughout the remaining part of its life cycle. The section is divided into a number of subsections, each including a field of application.
Heavy metals will typically be consumed as a trace element in coal, oil, wood, fertiliser, feedstuff, agricultural chalk and other fields of application. For heavy metals as for other elements, it applies that, due to the fact that they are natural parts of the environment, they will occur in varying concentrations in most of the products used in society. For other substances, the application as contaminant has to be estimated in each individual case.
Content
The subjects covered in the explanation of each field of application as trace element and contaminant correspond largely to the subjects specified for 'fields of application'.
Coal
Considering the consumption as trace element in coal, it would thus be relevant to consider the following issues:
| Natural content of the substance in coal (there will be variation according to the origin of the coal). |
| Emission of the substance to air as a result of burning. |
| Production and application of coal/fly ash (a distinction may be made between application for production of cement, concrete and asphalt, road construction, filling purposes and land reclamation, etc. In the summary included at the end of this section as well as that of Chapter '4. Evaluation', the application for construction works is included as landfilling (will typically be reported to the authorities), whereas utilisation for cement, concrete and asphalt, is considered as utilisation for new products, i.e. stock building in society is taking place. |
| Discharge of the substance as a result of the utilisation of coal/fly ash (there will be emission to air as a result of the production of cement, discharge to water and soil in connection with road construction and filling purposes etc.). |
| Trends in consumption. |
Oil and other fuels
As regards the consumption as trace element in oil and other fuels, it will be relevant to consider the following issues:
| Natural content of the substance |
| Discharges and residual products as a result of refining |
| Discharges and residual products as a result of burning |
| Discharges by final disposal of residual products |
| Trends in consumption |
Fertilisers, feedstuff, etc.
Concerning the application as trace element in fertiliser, feedstuff and agricultural chalk, it will, accordingly, be relevant to consider the following issues:
| Natural content of the substance in raw materials |
| Discharges as a result of manufacturing |
| Losses to the environment as a result of the use of finished products and of 'residual products' such as dung |
| Trends in consumption |
The above lists are meant as examples. In practice, it will be necessary to consider the life cycle of the substance for each individual field of application as trace element and contaminant.
Summary
The section includes a short summary based on a table indicating, for each field of application, the present consumption and trends as well as the annual loss of the substance to air, soil, water/wastewater, solid waste, chemical waste and other end points.
3.5 '3. Turnover with Waste Products'
3.5.1 '3.1 Recycling of the Substance'
This section summarises the information about recycling of the substance as a pure substance, as an alloy and as a chemical compound. This information is compared to the available statistical data on production, import and export of waste products for recycling. Furthermore, estimates are made of emissions as a result of recycling activities.
Statistics
The section is opened with a table showing statistical data on production, import and export of relevant scrap and waste products based on the statistics from Statistics Denmark. The statistical information on production of scrap is actually somewhat curious and very difficult to interpret and it is usually necessary to obtain additional information from the main scrap dealers to estimate the actual turn over with waste products for recycling.
The scrap and waste often consist of composite products and it is necessary to estimate the specific concentration of the substance. The substance may also be exported in mixed waste fractions for recovery abroad. As an example copper is partly exported in a mixed metal fraction from shredders registered as 'zinc scrap' as zinc is the main constituent.
Cross-checks
These statistical data are compared to the result of the summary of the information on recycling activities from all 'fields of application' in chapter 2. In case unexplainable inconsistency is registered when the balances are first set up, it may become necessary to check the estimates made for recycling of the substance from all 'intended fields of application'.
Losses by collection, sorting and stock building
Inconsistency can sometime be explained by losses and discharges by collection, sorting and stock building of recyclable materials. It is, however, not possible to set up general rules, and it will be necessary to look into this question for each chemical substance. Experience shows that it is very difficult to estimate losses and discharges, at this stage - particularly losses to soil. Rough estimates based on mass balances are therefore acceptable provided that a description of the actual processes proves it probable that the estimated losses do, in fact, occur.
This section does not include any assessment of the losses and discharges by actual industrial processing of the chemical substance etc. If such processes take place, the assessment hereof should be included in Section 2.1'Raw Materials and Semi-manufactured Goods' or Section 2.2 'Fields of Application'.
3.5.2 '3.2 Other Turnover with Solid Waste'
This section includes an assessment of the turnover of the chemical substance as a result of the treatment and final disposal of solid waste including incineration, composting, landfilling and recycling of waste products. Recycling of the chemical substance itself is not discussed in this section (included in Section '3.1 Recycling of the Substance').
This assessment also serves to cross-check the quantities of the substance estimated to end up in solid waste.
A prerequisite for the assessment is that monitoring data exists of the chemical substance in solid waste and in the residual products and emissions resulting from the treatment of solid waste. Data will typically be available for the most common heavy metals whereas data for chemical compounds including organic substances are scarce. If the available data are insufficient, the assessments will either have to be discontinued or based on theoretical models or a monitoring programme will have to be initiated.
Note that quantities of residual products will normally represent wet weight whereas the concentration of the substances in the residual products most often is measured per dry weight. For the calculation of the total turnover of the substance with residual products it is thus necessary to know the water content of the products.
Assuming that adequate data are available to carry out the assessment, it may, in principle, cover the following issues:
| Total annual volumes of solid waste in Denmark divided according to methods of treatment and final disposal |
| Turnover by recycling of materials |
| Turnover by biological waste treatment |
| Turnover by thermal waste treatment |
| Turnover by landfilling activities |
It would be appropriate to cover each of these issues in a separate subsection. If the turnover by recycling of materials is very complex, it may be relevant to have separate subsections for each material, e.g. a subsection for paper, one for plastic, one for metals, etc.
Quantities and methods
In the subsection about quantities of waste, the total annual volume of solid waste in Denmark by types of waste, methods of treatment and final disposal should be indicated. This information serves as a basis for further evaluation. The level of detail will depend on the requirements as to the accuracy of distinction between different types of waste and methods of treatment and final disposal. Considering methods of treatment and final disposal, there should typically be a distinction between recycling, biological treatment (composting/biofermentation), thermal treatment (incineration) and landfilling .
It might be appropriate to include, in this subsection, a general assessment of the sources of the chemical substance to solid waste. This means that a list should be set up of the expected sources of the substance to solid waste with discarded products etc. An estimate of the size of these sources will have been made in connection with the discussion of the different intended fields of application and the turn over as trace element and contaminant. When setting up this list, a distinction should be made between the different methods of treatment and final disposal, as specified above. Thus, a general overview of the situation is achieved which will be useful in the evaluation of sources to be carried out in the subsequent subsection.
Recycling
The subsection(s) concerning recycling include(s) an assessment of the substance flows and discharges of the chemical substance by recycling and processing of waste materials such as plastic, paper, iron and steel, electronic waste, etc.
General guidelines cannot be given for this assessment, as it will depend on the substance in question and its fate by these recycling and processing methods. It is important for the assessment to end up with an estimate of the quantities of the chemical substance which:
| are discharged to air, soil or water |
| are destroyed |
| end up in solid waste |
| end up in new products produced from these materials |
Biological treatment
Here, biological treatment includes composting and biofermentation. This subsection includes an assessment of the substance flow through facilities for these treatments. The assessment should at least include the following components:
| Existing measurement data on the content of the chemical substance in different fractions of waste supplied to such facilities (cf. Box A2). |
| Existing monitoring data concerning the content of the chemical substance in different residual products from such facilities. |
| Emissions (air, wastewater) of the chemical substance from such facilities. |
| Degradation of the substance during the process |
| If possible, a mass balance drawn up on this basis for the chemical substance at such facilities (see comments below). |
| Final disposal of residual products from such facilities and the volumes of the chemical substance thus directed to soil, deposited at controlled landfills or otherwise (for instance, sifting residues with a significant content of plastic will presumably be taken to a waste incineration plant). |
Monitoring data on the content of the chemical substance in different fractions of waste should be subject to critical evaluation (cf. Box A2). If the waste is inhomogeneous, the results of monitoring will normally mainly reflect the general background content in the waste rather than the total content. In spite of this, it would be sound practice to present existing knowledge, i.e. existing monitoring data. Danish data are preferable, but foreign data may be included, where Danish data are not available, if such data are considered to be representative of Danish waste. Monitoring data concerning residual products (e.g. finished compost) will typically be reliable (subject to the general uncertainty related to sampling and chemical analysis) due to mixing and homogenisation of the waste which takes place as part of waste treatment operation. A critical evaluation of these data should be made, as well, in order to identify possible systematic biases (have plastic bits been removed from the compost before analysis etc.?). Series of measurements should be referred to by mean values and standard variation.
If no monitoring data exist about sifting residue, the only practicable way to calculate the content of the chemical substance in sifting residue will be to make an estimate on the basis of a source assessment (see above). In this evaluation, it should be kept in mind to include waste products such as sewerage sludge. The resulting assessment will inherently be uncertain and, most likely, cross-checks cannot be performed.
As regards a number of chemical substances, particularly substances used as additives in plastic etc., it should be expected that a significant part of the content of the chemical substance in compost and residual products from biological treatment plants stems from plastic etc., which has been taken to pieces as a result of the mechanical processes (sifting, turning of winndows, etc.) which are part of the treatment process. A source assessment (see above) may therefore be essential in order to understand and explain the concentrations of chemical substances, which can be measured in the residual products.
The extent to which a full mass balance should be established and a source assessment carried out has to depend on the significance of the substance flow through the biological treatment plant as compared to other types of waste treatment.
Waste incineration
This subsection should include an assessment of the substance flows by solid waste incineration. The assessment should at least include the following components:
| Existing monitoring data concerning the content of the chemical substance in different fractions of waste supplied to solid waste incinerators (cf. comments regarding biological treatment plants and Box A2 ). |
| Existing monitoring data concerning the content of the chemical substance in different residual products from solid waste incinerators. |
| Various emissions (air, wastewater) of the chemical substance from incinerators |
| If possible, a mass balance worked out on this basis for the chemical substance at incinerators (see comments below) |
| Final disposal of residual products from incinerators and the volumes of the chemical substance thus landfilled, utilised for construction works etc. |
As regards solid waste incineration plants, it will normally be possible to work out mass balances for heavy metals and other elements. Data can be obtained on the content of the substance in slag, fly ash, flue-gas cleaning residues and flue gas (remember possible steam emission and amounts supplied by ancillary materials for flue gas cleaning). Note when working out the balances that the volumes of residues are usually given in wet weight, whereas the concentration is given per dry weight. On this basis, an estimate can be made of the content of the substance in the waste incinerated. On the contrary, it is likely not possible to establish mass balances for chemical compounds which may be degraded/transformed as a result of thermal treatment, e.g. dioxins.
Source assessment should also be carried out in connection with waste incineration. In this assessment, it is important to remember waste products from other types of waste treatment such as fragmentation residue from scrap yards, sifting residue from biological treatment plants, sewage sludge etc. Considering heavy metals and other elements, the source assessment will constitute a cross-check, as the expected total amount of supplies should be in accordance with the result of the mass balance of waste incineration plants. As regards organic compounds and other chemical compounds, the source assessment will, in most cases, be the only way of achieving an estimate of the supplies to waste incineration plants. As in the case of biological treatment plants, it has to be evaluated whether the source assessment carried out for such facilities can be made sufficiently reliable to be trustworthy.
As regards final disposal of residual products, it may be relevant to assess the leaching from residual products used for construction works. It should be noted that, in the case of chemical substances not easily soluble in water, the discharges will normally be marginal and should only be included in detailed SFAs. As regards chemical substances, which are highly soluble in water, these discharges should be included, also in overview analyses.
It should be noted that, in the summaries included in the reports, landfilling includes the utilisation of residual products for construction works. The reason for this is the fact that utilisation for construction works typically requires notification of and registration by the authorities. However, the utilisation of small amounts of slag/ash does not require notification and should therefore, in principle, be regarded as a loss to soil. The total amount of residual products and thereby the amount of the substance thus supplied/lost to soil should, of course, be estimated, if possible and if the amounts are considered to be significant.
Box A2
Reliability of monitoring for waste fractions.
| Monitoring data on the content of chemical substances in solid waste often
underestimate the actual content of the substance. An important reason is
the difficulty of taking out representative samples of mixed solid waste,
combined with the fact that chemical substances often is non-homogeneous
distributed in the waste. This is illustrated by the following examples: Example 1: This is a calculated example concerning Ni/Cd batteries. According to /4/ Ni/Cd batteries (loose, closed batteries) have an average weight of approx. 34 g each and contain approx. 6.1 g of Cd (approx. 18%). Packets of batteries for tools, computers etc. have an average weight of approx. 400 g each and contain approx. 72 g of cadmium. The average useful life of such batteries is estimated at approx. 4 years and the consumption in 1988 amounted to approx. 700,000 loose batteries and approx. 145,000 packets of batteries /4/. Considerable collection of used batteries takes place, but some will still end up in solid waste. The precise amount collected is not known. If it is estimated, that 75% is collected (corresponding to the agreement made between the Danish EPA and the retail trade, which entered into force on 1 February 1992), approx. 175,000 loose batteries and approx. 36,000 packets of batteries corresponding to a total of approx. 3.7 tonnes of cadmium will end up in solid waste. These batteries are likely to end up mainly in household waste or similar types of waste, which is mainly taken to waste treatment facilities. According to /4/, a total of approx. 1,780,000 tonnes of waste was incinerated in Denmark in 1990, with an estimated average content of cadmium amounting to approx. 6.9 mg/kg waste. Assuming that the 175,000 batteries and 36,000 packets of batteries are evenly distributed in the waste, this corresponds to one battery or packet of batteries for each 8 tonnes of waste. These batteries and packets of batteries will add an amount of cadmium to the waste corresponding to approx. 30% of the total content of cadmium in the waste. Now, the interesting question is how much waste has to be analysed in order for the investigation to be representative as regards the occurrence of batteries and packets of batteries. No statistical evaluation of this question is known to have been carried out. On the face of it, it is the opinion (of the authors) that there is reason to be critical of investigations covering less than 25 tonnes of waste. Example 2: Another example is the well-known Laxå project in Sweden (cf. /2/). As part of this project, household waste was sorted and analysed for 9 heavy metals as well as PCB. As regards cadmium, the result showed that the most important sources of cadmium in household waste were: PVC plastic, rubber/leather and metal (other than tins and tubes - probably zinc alloys). It is interesting why the Laxå project did not point to pigments in plastic as an important source of cadmium in waste. As a pigment in plastic, cadmium was used for red, yellow, orange, chestnut and similar colours. In the Laxå project, the quantity of cadmium in plastic other than PVC was calculated as 0%. From the description of the methodology (cf. /2/) it appears that plastic is only sorted into two fractions, viz. 'PVC plastic' and 'other plastic'. A number of samples have then been taken from each fraction for analysis. The plastic was thus not sorted according to colour. In a Danish analysis of household waste (cf. /3/), the waste was also sorted according to colour. It turned out that only approx. 11% of the plastic was coloured by use of cadmium pigments. The part of the plastic coloured by cadmium pigments had a significantly higher content of cadmium. It must therefore be regarded as probable that, in the Laxå project, plastic coloured by cadmium pigments was incidentally not included in the samples. Most likely, the material analysed was therefore not representative. Conclusion: From these examples it is concluded that direct monitoring of the contents of waste is only reliable if the extent and the sorting techniques used are likely to produce results which are representative as regard the chemical substances and the fields of application covered by the analysis. Unfortunately, waste analyses seldom live up to these requirements. Typically, such analyses will show values concerning the content of heavy metals etc. in solid waste which are significantly below those, which can be calculated by mass balances for waste incineration plants. |
Landfilling
This subsection includes an evaluation of substance flows by landfilling. The evaluation should at least include:
| Existing monitoring results concerning the content of the chemical substance in different fractions of waste supplied to landfills (cf. comments included in the subsection on biological treatment plants and Box A2 ) |
| Various discharges (air, wastewater, leaching to groundwater) of the chemical substance from landfills. |
It will probably be difficult to carry out mass balances for landfills due to the lack of reliable monitoring data concerning the content of the chemical substance in the waste supplied to the landfill. Moreover, the significance of possible degradation of the chemical substance during treatment (only relevant for organic substances) should be taken into account.
The only possible way to achieve an estimate of the supply of the chemical substance to waste deposits will most likely be to make an estimate on the basis of a source assessment (cf. biological treatment plants and waste treatment plants). In this assessment, it is important to include waste products such as sewage sludge and residual products from biological treatment plants, waste incineration plants etc. The assessment will probably be subject to a certain degree of uncertainty and can hardly be cross-checked.
It must be stated how effluents from landfills are treated and discharged.
3.5.3 '3.3 Turnover with Chemical Waste'
This section aims at evaluate the discharges to the environment by treatment of chemical waste in Denmark and to carry out cross-checks on the estimated loss of the chemical substance to chemical waste carried out for each field of application in Chapter '2. Application in Denmark'.
The section should thus cover:
| Supply of the chemical substance to chemical waste |
| Volumes of chemical waste received by Kommunekemi (the national treatment facility for chemical waste in Denmark) etc. |
| Emissions and substance flows by treatment of chemical waste |
The section should not cover chemical waste processed or exported for recycling of the chemical substance. These issues will be covered in Section '3.1 Recycling of the Substance'.
Types and amounts supplied to waste
Based on the assessments undertaken in Chapter '2. Application in Denmark', a list is made (in the form of a table) of all supplies of the chemical substance to chemical waste. In principle, this list should indicate the source and type (pure substance, chemical compound etc) as well as the quantities (tonnes/year). Furthermore, indication may be made of the facilities to which the relevant type of chemical waste is delivered or at which final disposal takes place (Kommunekemi or others).
Reception
To the extent possible, data should be obtained from Kommunekemi and other disposal facilities about the quantities of waste received by types of waste. Kommunekemi may not have such detailed information, however. In that case, information should be obtained from Kommunekemi about possible imports/exports of waste, about discharges to air and water and about the quantities deposited in the form of ash, slag and filter cake. On this basis, it should be possible to make an estimate of the total amounts received. It should be considered whether degradation of the chemical substance will take place during treatment. Anyhow, it is important to consider whether there is reasonable accordance between the expected amounts received and the amounts, which can be registered by Kommunekemi. Possible discrepancies should be explained.
It should be noted that Kommunekemi might also receive polluted soil and that other disposal channels exist for some substances - some of which are approved, and some are not. By way of example oil is widely incinerated at other approved plants than Kommunekemi.
3.5.4 '3.4 Turnover with Wastewater and Sewage Sludge'
This section should include an assessment of the content of the chemical substance in sewage sludge as well as the size of discharges and substance flows by wastewater treatment and disposal of sewage sludge and other residual products. At the same time, the assessment will constitute a cross-check to verify the amounts of the substance estimated to end up in wastewater.
To what extent the assessment can be carried out depends on the existence of monitoring data concerning the content of the chemical substance in wastewater and sewage sludge. Data will typically be available for the most common heavy metals and persistent organic compounds. However, for many chemical compounds no data are available. If the available data are inadequate, the substance flow analysis will either have to be abandoned at this point, a special monitoring programme will have to be initiated or the estimates has to be based on theoretical models.
Assuming that adequate data are available to carry out the evaluation, it should include:
| Total annual discharged volumes of wastewater and rainwater (urban run-of) in Denmark |
| Existing monitoring data concerning the content of the chemical substance in wastewater, rainwater and sewage sludge as well as the efficiency of treatment facilities |
| Assessment of sources of the chemical substance in wastewater and rainwater |
| Total amounts of sewage sludge and disposal hereof |
Quantities
The total annual amount of wastewater in Denmark should be indicated as a basis for further evaluations. A minor part of this amount will be discharged to soil via infiltration plants and the rest is supplied to wastewater treatment plants or discharged directly to the aquatic environment. Moreover, some rainwater is discharged directly to the recipient. The extent to which these conditions should be taken into consideration depends on the level of detail of the analysis.
Existing monitoring data
Data on the content of the chemical substance in wastewater, rainwater and sewage sludge should be collected and specified (if possible). Such data may be obtained by personal contact to wastewater treatment plants or from literature. It is important to make sure that these data are representative. Furthermore, the literature should be consulted to obtain information about the typical efficiency of treatment at wastewater treatment plants aimed at the chemical substance and an assessment should be made as to whether there is reasonable concordance between these data and the registered concentrations contained in wastewater and sewage sludge.
Modelling
If monitoring data do not exist, this part of the analysis must be excluded or 'best estimates' may be obtained by modelling on the basis of e.g. physical chemical properties of the substance, experiences with analogous substances or experiences from other countries. It should be clearly noted in the report if emissions are estimated on the basis of models. For instance, the concentration of the substance in effluents from wastewater treatment plants may be estimated if the concentration in influents, the efficiency of treatment facilities and the physical/chemical properties of the substance is known.
Source evaluation
A list should be drawn up of the expected sources of the chemical substance in wastewater and rainwater. This list should be based on the estimates of loss to wastewater made in Chapter '2 Application in Denmark', and the other sections of this chapter.
Subsequently, an evaluation should be made as to whether there is reasonable concordance between this list (total amount supplied) and the actual monitoring results concerning the content in wastewater, rainwater etc. and to what extent inconsistencies can be explained.
Assuming that there is reasonable concordance, it should be possible, at this point, to make a qualified estimate of the total content in wastewater and of the substance flow through wastewater treatment plants.
Sewage sludge
If some of the chemical substance is likely to end up in sewage sludge, indication should be made of the ways in which sewage sludge is disposed of (landfilling, agricultural soil or incineration) and of the loss to the environment thus taking place. It would be relevant to make a distinction between losses to air, soil and solid waste and, if relevant, destruction.
3.5.5 '3.5 Summary'
This section sums up all types of waste disposal in Denmark. The section is based on a table indicating, for each disposal way, the annual loss of the substance to air, soil and water as well as the quantities estimated to be incinerated, deposited or recycled/stocked in society in new products. This summary helps the reader maintain an overall view of the situation. At the same time, the summary is valuable to the author, as it serves as a checklist (have all relevant issues been dealt with?).
3.6 '4. Evaluation'
3.6.1 '4.1 Fields of Application and Consumption in Denmark'
This section sums up the available information and estimates concerning the consumption of the chemical substance for different purposes in Denmark.
It is recommended to base the section on a table listing the different fields of application in as much detail as possible. For each field of application the consumption in absolute (tonnes/year) and relative figures (%) as well as the trend in consumption (downward/upward/stagnant) should be indicated.
The text in this section will focus on the conclusions that can be drawn from the table, i.e. total consumption, main fields of application and development trends. Moreover, the uncertainty on the consumption should be indicated.
In the case of updates of previous analyses, the results of such analyses should also be shown and the trends in consumption commented on.
3.6.2 '4.2 Discharge to the Environment in Denmark'
This section should sum up the available information and estimates concerning discharges to the environment of the substance in Denmark.
As in the case of Section '4.1', it is recommended to base the section on a table listing the different sources of discharge in as much detail as possible. For each source the discharges in absolute figures (tonnes/year) to air, water, soil and landfills should be indicated. As a footnote to this table, it should be indicated how much of the volumes deposited that is utilised for construction works.
The text in this section should focus on the conclusions, which can be drawn from the table, i.e. total discharge to air, soil and water and the amount deposited as well as the main sources of these discharges and losses. Moreover, the uncertainty of the data should be addressed.
In the case of updates of previous analyses, the results of such analyses should also be indicated and the development commented on.
3.6.3 '4.3 Substance Balance for Denmark'
This section aims to provide a general view of the main flows of the substance in Denmark. Here, it is recommended to base the section on a figure similar to that shown in Figure A2.
An important element of the figure is the calculation of the stock building of the chemical substance taking place in the Danish society. This stock building is calculated on the basis of a mass balance including all imports and exports to/from the Danish society. The stock building will most often be positive, but for e.g. 'sunset chemicals' negative stock building are seen.
Apart from this, a brief explanation of the main elements of the figure is sufficient.
Figure A2
Mass Balance for Denmark - example (lead balance in Denmark 1985 -
tonnes/year /1/)
3.7 'References'
References are indicated in accordance with normal practise for scientific reports. Based on the reasons stated in the main report, it would, however, be appropriate only to indicate the names of enterprises, from whom consumption figures have been obtained in a specific appendix entitled 'Enterprises Contacted '.
3.8 'Appendices'
The report should at least include the following appendices:
| Enterprises contacted |
| Statistical information about imports, exports and Danish production of raw materials and semi-manufactured goods containing the substance. The list should include data for a period of at least 5 years in order to disclose random variation and incorrect registration and show possible trends in consumption. |
Apart from these appendices the following optional extensions will be discussed in the following:
| Scenarios for future loss of the substance |
| Occurrence and fate in the environment |
| National and international regulation on the use of the substance |
| Assessment of substitutes |
| Recycling, downcycling and material deterioration |
The titles of these appendices should only be considered suggestions.
Other appendixes may of cause be included as well if necessary.
3.8.1 Scenarios for Future Loss of the Substance
The appendix is an optional extension to the SFA.
The analysis can be carried out at two levels:
| Simple scenarios |
| Detailed scenarios |
The core SFA includes an assessment of the actual loss of the substance to the environment and landfills. The analysis, however, does not include any forecast of the potential losses of the substance in the future. For many substances there is at the moment a continuous accumulation of the substance in the society and the losses are consequently lower than the present input of the substance into the society.
By way of example the consumption of aluminium profiles for wood window frames has increased markedly during the last years, but due to the durability of the windows only small amounts of aluminium profiles are at the present disposed of with the windows.
Discussion of models for prediction of future emissions and examples of application of the models to case studies can be found in Voet et al. 1999.
The object of the appendix is to study the sustainability of the present recycling and disposal of the substance and to analyse the future effect of different regulating actions.
By the initiation of the SFA is will be necessary to define which application areas should be covered by the appendix and the space of time for the scenarios.
Simple scenarios
Simple scenarios can be developed by presuming that the present consumption and disposal pattern continues until a steady state is attained. At that moment the sum total of loss and recycling will counterbalance the consumption. Such a simple 'business as usual' scenario can provide very useful information regarding the sustainability of the current consumption and disposal pattern, but often more exact scenarios are demanded.
Detailed scenarios
A more detailed scenario for the future loss of the substance imply for each product covered by the assessment the following:
| Information about the present loss of the substance by use and disposal of the products |
| An assessment of the life-time distribution of the product |
| An assessment of the annual consumption of the substance with the product within a historical period covering the whole range of the life-time distribution |
| Scenarios for the future consumption of the product (the space of time will be dependent of the space of time of the loss scenario) |
| Scenario for the future disposal of the product |
Information about the loss of the substance by use and disposal of the products will most often based on the present use and disposal of the products.
Life-time distributions
Information on life-time distributions of the products can be obtained from the technical literature, producers, distributors and users of the products. It should, however, be emphasised that the actual life-time of the products may be different from the technical life-time. After use the products may be stored for some time in lumber-rooms and lofts or the product may be used in summer houses etc. where it is actually only used for a short time of the year. These effects have had a significant influence on inter alia the life-time distribution of electronic products, where the amount of discarded products has been significantly lower than expected from the technical life-time distributions.
Historical figures
Historical consumption figures can be obtained from Statistics Denmark, if the products can be unequivocally identified by relevant commodity numbers. Most often this is not the situation and it will be necessary to combine statistical information with information from obtained from previous consumption assessments and persons with years of experience in the relevant line of business.
A similar approach may be used within the core SFA for estimation of the amount of the substance accumulated in the society and the total loss of the substance with specific products with e.g. solid waste. The approach is however more time consuming than usually allocated for the assessment of the accumulated in the society.
An example of the application of this approach can be found in SFA for cadmium 1999 where the actual disposal of cadmium with NiCd batteries to solid waste is calculated from life-time distributions and historical consumption figures of NiCd batteries for different applications /Drivsholm et al, in press/.
Scenarios for the future disposal
Development of scenarios for the future disposal pattern will include considerations about the extent of recycling of the products in the future. The recycling rate will depend on the development in recycling technology, market mechanisms and governmental regulation of recycling and recovery. It is recommended to develop more scenarios where one of the scenarios is the "Business as usual" scenario.
Input
The input will depend on the number of application areas covered by the scenarios. It should be noted that each application area might cover many product types with different life-time distributions. The simple scenarios will take approximately three to six man-week for all application areas. It is estimated that the detailed scenarios for the first application area will approximately take one to four man-weeks dependent on the number of different product types; the following application areas will take less.
3.8.2 Occurrence and Fate in the Environment
The appendix is an optional extension to the SFA.
The object of the appendix is to provide an overview of the occurrence of the substance in the environment in Denmark. This information is aimed to be used in combination with other studies to provide a basis for decisions regarding the need for further minimisation of emissions of the substance to the environment.
For the discussion of the distribution of the substance in the environment, physical/chemical properties and fate of the substance in the environment is shortly described.
It should be emphasised that the appendix should not include data on the toxicity and do not contain a risk assessment or risk evaluation. If a risk assessment is needed it is recommended to carry it out as a separate project.
The assessment should at least include:
| Monitoring data for the substance in the environment in Denmark |
| Discharges to the environment (from main report) |
| Fate of the substance in the environment |
An example on organotin compounds can be found in Stuer-Lauridsen et al 1998. This study, however, includes both occurrence and fate in the environment and a hazard and risk evaluation.
Monitoring data
The assessment should include a comprehensive summary in tabular form of existing monitoring data from Denmark covering the following compartments:
|
Atmosphere - Air - Rainwater - Deposition - Background deposition - Deposition near point sources and in cities |
|
Terrestrial environment - Soil - Agricultural soil - Soil near point sources an in cities - Other soils - Terrestrial organisms |
|
Groundwater |
|
Freshwater and marine environment - Water, sediment and aquatic organisms - Open sea (background) - Coastal environment - Harbours - Near point sources |
The table should be based on published and unpublished data (if possible) from the National Environmental Research Institute, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Forest and Nature Agency, GEUS, County Environment Departments and Universities. Literature should be searched in relevant databases; ASFA among others.
Monitoring data on the concentration of about 100 substances in sediments will from the mid 2000 be available in the ATLAS database of the Danish EPA.
If monitoring data from Denmark do not exist or are scarce the summary may include literature data from other countries; in order of priority: the Nordic countries, EU Member States, OECD countries, Global.
The table should include both mean values and minimum/maximum values to indicate the range of concentration of the substance in the environment. If the range is wide it is relevant to discuss the basis for the variation: data quality, point sources, hotspots, etc.
Discharges
Discharges to the environment identified in the SFA should be summarised in tabular form. The table should include both discharges that have been quantified and discharges that only qualitatively have been identified.
Fate of the substance
An assessment of the fate of the substance in the environment can be a rather extensive study, but will here be limited to a listing of relevant physical/chemical properties in tabular form and a short review of environmental chemical properties of the substance. The aim of the review is to form a background for a discussion of the observed distribution of the substance in the environment.
The relevant properties depend on whether the substance is an element or an organic chemical. For organic chemicals relevant physical/chemical properties would be: Solubility, Henry's Law constant, octanol-water partition coefficient, pKa and distribution coefficient.
For elements relevant properties are less well defined but relevant properties will be: Solubility, speciation in various media (water, soil, sediment, air) and physical/chemical conditions (pH, O2 concentration, alkalinity). Attention should be paid on soluble or immobile species.
In addition the fate of the substance in the environment should be described as regards bioconcentration, degradation, biodegradation and biotransformation.
The data sources for this part of the assessment are numerous including databases as HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), IUCLID (International Uniform ChemicaL Information Database), ENVICHEM (Environmental Properties of Chemicals). For this reason it is for each assessment necessary clearly to define the strategy of data retrieval; which databases are searched and which properties are evaluated? The strategy of data retrieval will be closely connected to the level of detail and reliability of the assessment.
As minimum it is recommended to search HSDB, ENVICHEM, IUCLID and SAX's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials.
Mackay distribution
If the substance is an organic chemical a Mackay level 3 distribution is calculated /Mackay & Patterson 1991/. The distribution represents the steady state distribution of the substance between air, soil, water and sediment when the actual discharges to the compartments are used as input-parameters.
Discussion
The properties concerning distribution and bioaccumulation should finally be discussed in relation to the concentrations actually found in water, sediment and aquatic organisms.
Input
The input for this appendix will be very dependent on whether the SFA covers a single element or a large group of chemicals. If the SFA covers a large group of chemicals it may be most appropriate to report this assessment in a separate publication. The input for a single substance will approximately be a half to two man-month.
3.8.3 National and EU legislation on Use Restriction
The appendix is an optional extension to the SFA.
The object of the appendix is to give an overview over the current legislation on use restriction in Denmark and the EU.
The appendix should not include information on other regulation concerning the substance, e.g. limit values for the substance in wastewater, municipal sludge, etc.
Outline
The current Danish regulation of the use of the substance is chronologically gone through. For each act or statutory order the following is stated:
| The name of the regulation |
| A short description of the of restriction of the use of the substance lain down in regulation (10-50 lines) |
| Relevant EU directives if the Danish regulation is an implementation of EU directives |
EU directives not implemented in Danish legislation should shortly be described by the end of the appendix.
Information on legislation can be found in:
| Legal Information (http://www.retsinfo/) |
| Schultz legislative information (http://www.schultz.dk/) |
| EUR-lex of the European Commission (http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/) |
Input
The input for this appendix will be approximately between a half and one man-week.
3.8.4 Assessment of Substitutes
The appendix is an optional extension to the SFA.
The object of the appendix is to provide detailed information about possible substitutes to the substance in question. The assessment of substitutes may only cover some of the applications of the substance and it is by the initiation of the assessment necessary to define which applications are covered.
Outline
For every fields of application covered by the appendix possible substitutes are described. The substitutes are described at different levels (see below). The levels included in the assessment should be defined by the initiation the assessment. For each substitute technical advantages and disadvantages should be described. Obstacles for substitution e.g. that new machinery and tool are needed if the substance is to be substituted should also be described.
The assessment is summarised in a table listing the substitutes at the different levels.
Levels of substitution
It assessment of substitutes are included in the SFA a short summary of the substitution assessment may be included for each application area within the main part of the report.
Substitution may take place at three different levels:
A: Substance level substitution: The substance can be replaced with another substance
B: Composite or compound level substitution: The substance makes part of a composite/compound material, which can be replaced by other composite/compound.
C: Service level substitution: The service provided by the substance (or composite/compound) can be obtained by a totally different solution.
For instance brominated flame retardants used for flame retardancy in computer monitor housings may be replaced by other flame retardants (A), the plastic compound/flame retardant system may be replaced by another plastic compound/flame retardant system (B), or fire safety may be obtained without the use of flame retardants by changes in the construction of the monitor (C) /Lassen et. al 1999 B/.
In the following the term substitutes will also include alternative solutions.
The substitutes can be described at four levels and it should be defined whether the assessment is to cover only some of the levels. For each of these levels, substitution may take place at the three levels of substitution mentioned above. The resulting matrix is shown in the following table.
| Substance level | Composite or compound level | Service level | |
| Potential alternatives not technically approved | |||
| Technically approved alternatives not commercial available | |||
| Commercial available alternative raw materials and semi-manufactures | |||
| Commercial available finished pro ucts with alternatives |
Information sources
The information on substitutes can be obtained from technical literature, technical experts and suppliers of raw material, semi-manufactures and finished products.
It will often be necessary to make direct contacts to technical experts in development departments and laboratories of foreign companies e.g. the large chemical companies. The contact can be established through the Danish branches or agents of the companies.
It should be noted that discussion at the first level, 'potential alternatives not technically approved' often will be very difficult and requires that the authors have an extensive technical knowledge about the subject.
Price of alternatives
An assessment of the economic feasibility of substitution includes beside an assessment of the prices of alternatives also e.g. costs of new machinery and tools for processing of the alternatives and is a quite extensive study. The price of the alternative is only on aspect and could solitary described be misleading. If a comprehensive substitution feasibility assessment is carried out it is proposed to report the assessment in a separate publication. It is therefore proposed not to include any economic considerations in this appendix.
A new paradigm for assessment of the economic feasibility of substitution has recently been developed by the Danish EPA..
Input
Input will be dependent on the number of applications and levels covered by the assessment. The input for an assessment at all levels for one application will approximately be one to three man-weeks.
It is proposed by the initiation of the project to define the number of applications covered by the assessment and for each application to fill in the matrix shown above to define the included levels.
3.8.5 Recycling, Downcycling and Material Deterioration
The appendix is an optional extension to the SFA.
There is at the moment a tendency toward a more widespread technically optimisation of materials by composing the materials of many different elements, minerals or chemical compounds. This applies for polymers, metal alloys and composites and mineral composites; in the following all designated 'composites'. In addition the components are often covered by inseparable surface layers of other materials.
For example, aluminium is optimised for different specific applications by alloying the aluminium with a large number of other metals. The aluminium products may in addition be surface treated with thin layers of metals or other materials /Lassen et al. 1999 A/.
When the materials are collected for recycling they are often mixed resulting in secondary materials with a more limited application range than the primary materials and problematic components (e.g. heavy metals) may be spread to materials where they do not have any explicit function.
Issues related to the recycling of the materials are discussed in this appendix.
Outline
The appendix should include (the order illustrates the lineout of the appendix):
| Description of the composites and surface treatments used for the application areas covered by the assessment |
|
Description of material collection and recycling, including: - actual practice for sorting of collected materials - actual practice for recycling and downcycling - grades of secondary materials |
| Description of material deterioration by recycling; both during a single and many material life cycles |
| Loss of the material by each material life cycle |
| Procedures for improved collection and recycling of the materials as regards mixing of grades |
| The potential for and costs of upgrading secondary materials to a quality similar to primary materials |
| The potential for separation of the composites into pure elements |
The appendix is closed by a summary including a discussion of the assessment.
It should be noted that "downcycling" in the analysis should be put in two perspectives: a resource perspective and a contamination perspective. For problematic substances as heavy metals "downcycling" is a way the substances are dispersed in the technosphere to areas where they are undesired. In addition the "downcycling" makes a "decontamination" of the technosphere more difficult. For problematic substances the analysis should include considerations about the time perspective of the "downcycling" helix; when can the substances introduced into the technosphere be expected to be disposed of as waste or discharged to the environment?
Information sources
The information on collection and recycling can be obtained from recycling companies, technical literature and technical experts.
It will often be necessary to make direct contacts to recycling companies and technical experts in foreign countries. The contact may be established through the Danish recycling companies or technical experts. The companies web-sites at the Internet may also be an entrance.
Input
The input will be dependent on the number of application areas covered. By the initiation of the SFA is should be defined which application areas are covered by the appendix. There is only very limited experience with this extension in SFA's and the input has to be estimated separately for each substance.
References
Danish EPA. 1999. From manuscript to publication. Guide for printed publications. http://www.mst.dk/fakta/40000000.htm. (In Danish)
Drivsholm, T.; E. Hansen; J. Maag & S. Havelund. Substance flow analysis for cadmium. The Danish EPA (in press).
Hansen, E. 1979. Cadmium in household waste. Master Thesis. Laboratory for Sanitary Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, 1979. (in Danish).
Hansen, E. & N.J. Busch. 1989. Consumption of and pollution by lead in Denmark. Environment Project no. 105. Danish EPA, Copenhagen. (in Danish)
Hovsenius, G. 1977. Rate of generation and composition of household waste in Laxå. SNV PM 902. Statens Naturvårdsverk, Stockholm. (in Swedish)
Jensen, A.& J. Markussen. 1992. Consumption of and Pollution by Cadmium. Environmental Project No. 213. Danish EPA, Copenhagen. (in Danish).
Lassen, C.; E. Hansen; T. Kaas & J. Larsen. 1999 A. Aluminium - substance flow analysis and loss reduction feasibility study. Environmental Project No. 484. Danish EPA, Copenhagen. (in Danish)
Lassen, C.; S. Løkke & L.I. Andersen. 1999 B. Brominated flame retardants. Substance flow analysis and assessment of alternatives. Environmental Project No. 494. Danish EPA, Copenhagen.
Mackay, D. & S. Patterson. 1991. Evaluation the multimedia fate of organic chemicals: A Level III fugative model. Env. Sci. Tech. 25: 427-436.
Stuer-Lauridsen, F., C. Lassen, N.J.Jensen & C. Poll. 1999. Environmental evaluation of organotin compounds in plastic and polymers. Environmental Project No. 429. Danish EPA, Copenhagen (in Danish).
Voet, E. van der.; R. Klein; R. Huele; M. Ishikawa & E. Verkuijlen. 1999. Predicting future emissions based on characteristics of stocks. Proceedings of the Conference "Nature, Society and History", 1999, Vienna. http://www.univie.ac.at/iffsocec/conference99/index.html
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