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Strategic Analysis of the Environmental Challenges for Northwest Russia 2. Background
Some of the major environmental challenges faced by Russia today can be traced back to the start of the century when the centrally planned economic modernisation and industrialisation of the USSR were launched. The main focus was on optimising output levels and often neglecting ecological impacts. Based on the country’s abundant natural resources, extremely ambitious investment projects were launched in previously pristine environments (e.g. dams, mines, large-scale farms and industrial cities). Millions of people were moved to the cities with little consideration for the environmental effects of urbanisation. Massive clustering of industrial and agricultural activities has lead to high concentrations of pollutants with a highly negative impact on the environment. Russia’s abundant natural resources were utilised by the state to boost production and public service levels with limited concern given to opti-mising the efficiency of these inputs, which has resulted in inefficient use of e.g. energy and water. Furthermore, due to cross subsidies from low energy prices, which are today still below world marked prices, energy intensive industries have been favoured. Although the Soviet Union passed some of the earliest laws on toxic substance levels the second half the 20th century was marred by a long list of ecological disasters culminating in 1986 with the Chernobyl nuclear power plant meltdown. 2.1 The Reform ProcessSince then the Russian governments have introduced a number of reforms to improve the environmental situation of the country. See summary in the text box below.
The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP 1999-2001) is one of the Russian Federation’s most significant and comprehensive strategic documents for environmental protection. The National Environmental Action Plan outlined the objectives for: improvement of the environmental situation in Russia; conservation of nature resources; the effective participation of Russia in international environmental initiatives; and implementation of priority environmental protection activities. However, it was not developed as an operational document and consequently did not specify targets, offer a ranking of activities nor provide a clear indication of financial sources. A new National Environmental Action Plan for the period 2003-2005 is presently being prepared. Its main purpose is to concretise environmental goals outlined in the Environmental Doctrine of 2002. In spite of the reforms initiated since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian society is still far more polluting and resource consuming than other OECD countries. 2.2 International Environmental Co-operationRussia’s International Commitments and Targets for Environmental Performance Up through the 1990s, Russia has entered into 25 multilateral agreements and 30 bilateral agreements, which are directly targeted at or include commitment towards improved environmental protection. Russia’s status regarding the most relevant environmental conventions and protocols are presented in the text box below.
EU The cornerstone in EU’s relation to Russia is the "Partnership and Cooperation Agreement" (PCA). This agreement was signed in 1997 and has expanded the scope of previous relations remarkably as the parties hold summits twice a year. Russia states in its strategy towards the European Union an overall commitment to secure a close and co-operative relation between the two parties including amongst other an approximation to EU environmental legislation, framework directives and technical standards. The TACIS Regional Co-operation Indicative Programme for 2004-2006 has sustainable management of natural resources as one of its priority areas, including in particular water issues, biodiversity and sustainable use of forest resources as well as climate change. The Northern Dimension Of particular relevance is the Northern Dimension, which operates through EU’s existing financing instruments. The main instruments are the Tacis, Phare and Interreg programmes. Furthermore, a number of regional organisations and international financing institutes are active in supporting the Northern Dimension, including the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB), the Nordic Facility for Environmental Finance Corporation (NEFCO), and the Nordic Project Fund (NOPEF). An environmental partnership under the Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership (NDEP) was initiated during the course of 2001 in response to calls from Russia and the international community for a concerted effort to address environmental problems in Northwest Russia. Of particular concern was the legacy of environmental damage in the region concerning water, drainage, energy efficiency and nuclear waste. With the creation of the Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership together with its Support Fund, the Russian Federation, the European Union, the international financing institutes (EBRD, EIB, NIB and the World Bank Group), and bilateral donors have a cohesive institutional framework, backed by dedicated resources, to support the solution of these problems. The Role of International Financing Institutions and Donors International financing institutes and donor organisations are an important source of finance for environmental investments in Northwest Russia. However, given the sheer size of the financing need, international financing alone cannot solve the environmental problems. From an environmental perspective, increased international co-operation and signing of various conventions and charters indicate a willingness to address environmental issues. Furthermore, it has the advantage that Russia, in order to live up to the agreed standards, is required to put the environment on the agenda. Through dialogue, and concrete international support, the various multilateral and bilateral agreements increase awareness of the environmental challenges and influence the Russian decision-making process towards making more environmentally sustainable priorities. However, as will be further substantiated in the next chapters, Russia still has a long way to go before it overcomes the environmental challenges it faces today. 2.2.2 Baltic Sea EnvironmentOne of the key areas today for Russia’s environmental efforts and international co-operation is the Baltic Sea.
The governing body of the Convention is the Helsinki Commission –Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission – also known as HELCOM. The HELCOM works to protect the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution through intergovernmental co-operation between Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden. Through its "Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme" (JCP), HELCOM involves all neighbouring countries in the efforts to secure an environmentally sustainable Baltic Sea. The JCP is a 20-year programme of action approved by the Helsinki Convention in 1992. The programme was reviewed and updated in 1998. The main objective of the JCP is to support both "preventive" and "curative" measures in the Baltic drainage basin to restore the ecological balance of the Baltic Sea by reducing pollution loads. This involves identifying key pollution sources – also called hot spots – and carrying out measures to reduce the inputs of nutrients and other harmful substances.
Key Facts on the State of the Environment in the Baltic Sea – 2001 Source: Helsinki Commission – Activities 2001 Overview In 1992, HELCOM identified 132 environmental hot spots of which 18 were in Northwest Russia. The hot spots were identified by an international group of scientists, engineers, environmental managers, financial experts and national representatives on the basis of practical economic considerations and the seriousness of their impact on the environment and human health. Today 51 of the original 132 hot spots1 – or 39 per cent – have been improved to meet HELCOM requirements and thus deleted from the list. However, so far only one – or six per cent – of Northwest Russian hot spots have been removed from the list due to closedown of the polluting industry2. Consequently, Russia still has 17 hot spots to address.
Source: Review of Progress at Industrial Hot Spots, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki 2002 According to HELCOM the Russian efforts have been encouraging but not sufficient to remove the hot spots from the list. There is a serious lack of funding and during 1991-98 only Euro 30.4 million were allocated for improving the environmental performance of the industrial hot spots in Northwest Russia3. As reference, a total financing need of Euro 313 millions was identified in the HELCOM Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme for Northwest Russia’s industrial hot spots. In comparison, 17 – or 50 per cent – out of Poland’s 33 hot spot identified in 1992 have been removed from the newly updated list1. A map of the hot spots is presented below and a full list of all hot spots identified in 1992 and their present status can be found in Appendix 2.
Hot Spots in the Baltic Sea4 Source: www.helcom.fi The 18 hot spots in Northwest Russia are divided into:
The problems in Northwest Russia are by far limited to the designated hot spot locations. In addition to being some of the most critical sources of the Baltic Sea pollution, the various hot spots indicate the type of problems to be found throughout Northwest Russia causing serious threats for the local environment and the health situation of the population.
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