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Update on Impact Categories, Normalisation and Weighting in LCA 9 Human toxicity
Frans M. Christensen, Danish Toxicology Centre, Leif Hoffmann and Anders Schmidt, dk-TEKNIK ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT 9.1 SummaryThe overall aim of this chapter is to update the present EDIP human toxicity normalisation references for air, water and soil according to Danish conditions and to establish similar European (EU-15) references. A global normalisation reference for human toxicity has been estimated based on the principles described in chapter 3, Development of normalisation references for different geographic areas. The EDIP-methodology (Hauschild et al. 1998) has been used to calculate the reference values. The normalisation references are shown in Table 9-1. Table 9-1
The normalisation references for human toxicity by exposure through airborme emissions have changed significantly, compared to the values in EDIP 97. The main reason for this is that it has been possible to include a speciation of the nmVOC emitted from road transport in the calculation. Some of the species emitted have a large toxicity potential as reflected by its effect factor and this – combined with the large amounts being emitted – have caused an increase in the normalisation references of about a factor 25, compared to the situation where no speciation of nmVOC is included. In practice, this means that the updated normalisation references have increased with a factor 6 instead of decreasing with a factor 4. The database and the calculations is described in more detail in section 9.3.1.2 and in Appendix B2. The importance of road transport is also evident when looking at the relative contribution of different substances to the normalisation reference. At the EU-15 level, nmVOC from road transport accounts for about 95% of the total impacts. On the national level a similar contribution is observed in all EU-countries with Luxembourg as an exception with "only" about 86% of the normalisation reference being related to nmVOC from road transport. In this context, the contribution from other substances becomes less important, although they still should be targeted for reductions. Lead and particulate matter (PM10) accounts for 3.1% and 0.3%, respectively, at the EU-15 level. The two substances are important for all individual Member States, but in some countries also PAH and NOx are equally important. In Denmark, lead, NOx and PM10 are the most significant contributors besides nmVOC from road transport. The normalisation reference for human toxicity via air can, however, only be determined with a large degree of uncertainty and some of the main sources for this uncertainty are discussed in more detail in the following sections. As a general rule, the normalisation reference is believed to provide the right order of magnitude, but more knowledge about the toxicity of emissions of nmVOC and particulate matter (both PM10 and PM2.5) may cause significant changes of the normalisation reference in a future update. The substances contributing with more than one percent to the normalisation reference for human toxicity by water for EU-15 are mercury (air and water emissions; 90%), dioxins (air emission; 4%), lead (water and air emissions) and zinc. For Denmark mercury is the only substance contributing with more than one percent. The substances contributing with more than one percent to the normalisation reference for soil for EU-15 are arsenic (air; 60%), mercury (air; 24%), tetrachloroethylene, arsenic (sludge), mercury (sludge), chromium (air), tetrachloromethane, lead and cadmium (both air). 9.2 Description of the impact categoryThe normalisation references for human toxicity via the environment [10] should reflect the total human toxic load in the reference area caused by human activity, i.e. the potential risk connected to exposure from the environment (via air, soil, provisions and drinking water) as a result of emissions to the environment from industrial production, traffic, power plants etc. [11] Ideally, all emissions of substances potentially affecting human health should be quantified and assessed. However, the multitude of known substances (>100.000) and an even larger number of emission sources logically makes that approach unfeasible. The inventory used for calculating the normalisation references is therefore based on available emission registrations for substances, which are believed to contribute significantly to the overall load. However, some significant emissions may still be missing. Further, the contribution from the multitude of minor emissions is not included. The contribution to the overall toxic load from these substances is unknown. A more detailed discussion of included substances and available data sources is given in section 9.3. There are also uncertainties connected to the methodology for estimating the toxic load of the substances and thereby the calculated normalisation references. They are discussed in section 9.5 and 9.6. See Hauschild et al. (1998) for a further description of the impact category. 9.3 Substances and data sourcesData and data sources used for calculating the normalisation references for air, water and soil are outlined in this section. Data included are discussed for each emission route. Then, the extrapolation method used to estimate lacking data for some countries is briefly described, and finally, some general omissions are outlined. 9.3.1 Substances includedThis section present and comments different exposure routes. Groups of substances of special interest (VOC and particulate matter) is also presented. 9.3.1.1 Air Major contributions to toxicity via air are assumed to be emissions from transport and energy production, waste incineration plants, industrial releases of POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) and other HPV (High Production Volume) chemicals. Corinair 94 (Ritter 1997) is a key reference including many of the above emissions and it is assessed to be a good quality data source. However, heavy metal and POP emissions from a number of countries are lacking. The lacking data have been extracted from other references as indicated in Appendix B.1 (e.g. POP and heavy metal emissions from 1995 and dioxin emissions from an European survey) or estimated by extrapolation, see paragraph 9.3.2. The Corinair data has, where relevant, been supplemented with more exact data, se also Appendix A and C for detailed references. The quantification of emission of chemicals other than heavy metals, POPs and other traditional air pollutant (like NOx and SO2) from the (chemical) industry at the European level is poor. Data from Dutch emission registrations (van der Auweraert et al. 1996) from major chemical enterprises have been investigated. However, apart from nmVOCs (non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds) discussed below and vinylchloride, equivalence factors (EQFs) for these substances are lacking in the present EDIP "toxicity database" (Hauschild et al. 1998) and it has not been within the scope of this project to establish these factors. Potentially - when the necessary EQFs become available - the Dutch emission figures can be used as a basis for extrapolation to other European countries and to an overall European level. Initially, a pragmatic approach is to evaluate whether the individual substances contribute significantly to the Dutch normalisation reference. Emission quantities for substances contributing less than 1% should not be extrapolated to other countries. This approach has been used for vinyl chloride in this project, see section 9.5. The uncertainty connected to the Dutch emission registrations is difficult to quantify. The Dutch registrations cover major emission sources. 9.3.1.2 VOC VOCs from industrial point sources usually consist of one or a limited number of specific substances/solvents, whereas VOCs from combustion processes are a very complex mixture, usually containing a major fraction of alkanes, medium amounts of methane, olefins, ethene and monocyclic aromatics, minor amounts of aldehydes (some of it being formaldehyde), and trace amounts of PAHs (between others benzo(a)pyrene and naphthalene) (van der Ven 1995). According to Corinair94 (Ritter 1997), the major European outdoor emission sources of nmVOCs are: approx. 30% from road traffic, 30% from solvent and other product use, about 20% from agriculture, forestry, land use and wood stock exchange and approx. 10% from different energy production and manufacturing combustion activities [12]. It is difficult to assign a specific toxicity for VOCs as a group, as it covers a wide range of substances. In the original EDIP method, nmVOC emissions were evaluated based on one equivalence factor for unspecified toxic action. This is clearly a simplification and has underestimated the toxicity of VOCs with specific actions, as evidenced by the significantly higher normalisation reference established in the update in the current project by applying specific factors for a large number of substances emitted from road transport. The establishing of specific effect factors for nmVOC from road transport and the importance of the emissions is described in detail in Appendix B.2. 9.3.1.3 Particles Particle emissions were not included in the previous EDIP methodology, but the increasing evidence that particles contribute significant to human health impact has called for the inclusion of particles in the normalisation reference. In terms of measuring particle emission/concentration, quite a few parameters can be applied. Traditionally, suspended particles have been measured as TSP (total suspended particulates) or as Black Smoke (BS) [13]. A more recent indicator for suspended particles is PM10 (particles with diameter below 10 m). It measures particles, which are believed to cause the major health concerns as these may penetrate deeply into the airways. However, measurement data of this parameter are still very incomplete (EEA, 1997). Particle emissions are not included in Corinair, but a Dutch report identifying some preliminary values has been identified (Berdowski et al. 1997b). This data source is not complete, many data have been estimated and the data are thus subject to some uncertainty, see the reference for further details. As can be seen from the above, more references may be relevant for a given emission depending on the country. General data sources for the different impact categories are presented in Appendix A. Specific references for the individual emission estimates are given in the calculation sheets in Appendix C. 9.3.1.4 Water Included in this normalisation reference are:
See chapter 10, Ecotoxicity, for a discussion of data sources, data uncertainties and relevant contacts. 9.3.1.5 Soil Included in this normalisation reference are:
See chapter 10, Ecotoxicity, for a discussion of data sources, data uncertainties and relevant contacts. 9.3.2 Extrapolation method appliedFor a number of countries, data are missing. Therefore, it has been necessary in relation to extrapolation to estimate these data to calculate national normalisation references as well as an EU-15 reference. Special aspects in relation to extrapolation methodology applied for air emissions are described in Appendix B.1, whereas soil and water emissions have been dealt with in chapter 10, Ecotoxicity. 9.3.3 General omissionsNo specific action has been taken in order to quantify emissions of substances, which are assumed to cause endocrine disruption, although these effects have lately been a major issue in the public and scientific debate. This attitude is due to the substantial present uncertainty of the actual extent of these effects also including the contributing substances and their potencies. Thus, at the moment, it does not seem possible to select substances to be included nor to assign these an equivalence factor (reflecting the potency). The major human problem for pesticides is believed to be exposure via contaminated drinking water (this exposure route is not yet operationalised in the EDIP methodology). However, toxic effects via other exposure routes cannot be excluded. Pesticides have not been included in the present project due to the lack of exposure data and effect factors for the multitude of pesticides applied. A proposed methodology for future inclusion is outlined in section 9.6. Emissions from the off-shore industry have not been quantified as they are is believed to cause minor effects compared with other emissions. Application of anti-fouling agents has been a major debate issue lately, but mainly in relation to potential effects on wildlife. Thus, in relation to human toxicity, the same consideration as for off-shore emissions is assumed. Photochemical ozone is included in the effect category on Photochemical ozone formation. As "double-counting" should be avoided, it is therefore - although definitely toxic - not included here. See also the discussion on impact categories in chapter 2, Selection of impact categories. 9.4 Methodology9.4.1 Toxicity in LCAIn LCA, different `types' of toxicity (irritation, cancer, neurotoxicity etc.) are described in a single figure. This is scientifically questionable. However, as with many aspects of LCA, the assessment should be made as good as possible based on the existing tools. In many LCA's, assessment of toxicity has been left out to make decisions causing an increased toxic load. EDIP (Hauschild et al. 1998) is one of the tools developed for assessment of toxicity in LCA. A few others have been developed internationally, and as to quality, there seem to be no or little difference. The impact potentials for human toxicity can be calculated as:
where EPhum,m is the effect potential (human toxicology) caused be exposure via the medium m (water, soil, air) EQFi,m is the equivalency factor for the substance i caused by exposure via the medium m (water, soil, air) mi is the emission of substance i 9.4.2 EDIPEDIP is used in present project. It is important that the results are used with caution as it appears from the uncertainty discussions during the remaining parts of the chapter. The EDIP method could be improved. Methodological problems are further discussed in section 9.6. Normalisation references are calculated based on EDIP (Hauschild et al. 1998):
where Normrefhum,m is the normalisation reference for human toxicity caused by exposure via the medium m (water, soil, ait) mi is emitted quantity of substance i EQFi,m is the equivalence factor for the substance i caused by exposure via the medium m (water, soil, air) N is the number of capita in the considered area Quantification of emissions is carried out as outlined in section 9.3. 9.4.3 Equivalence factors (EQF's)The current EDIP equivalence factors (EQF's) given in Hauschild et al. (1998) will be used in assessing individual substances. As particles are regarded as a significant new emission, an EQF has been estimated, see Appendix B.2. Some EQF's cover "category" emissions as for instance nmVOC, PAH and dioxins [14]. How VOC is dealt with was discussed in paragraph 9.3.1. PAH as well as dioxins are groups of substances of different toxicity. In order to sum up the human toxicological potential of PAH's and dioxins to a single number, toxic equivalence factors have been developed and adapted internationally (e.g. I-TEQ). By using these equivalence factors, the total PAH emission can be expressed as benzo(a)pyrene equivalents, and the total dioxin emission can be expressed as 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-p-dioxin equivalents (2,3,7,8-TCDD-eq. (I-TEQ)). The dioxin equivalence factors have been used for some years and are internationally accepted whereas the PAH equivalence factors are still under development. This means that emissions of dioxins normally are reported in I-TEQ while emissions of PAH are still reported as Σ PAH. By using the distribution of PAH's in calculation of benzo(a)pyrene-eq. and the Danish Σ PAH, a equivalency factor has been developed to transform Σ PAH to benzo(a)pyrene (detailed information on the distribution of PAH's is available for Denmark; see Table 9-10 in Appendix B.1): Benzo(a)pyrene-eq. = F Σ PAH = 0.12 x Σ PAH The information on emissions of PAH in the Corinair94 database is supposed to be Σ PAH and is transformed to benzo(a)pyrene-eq. by using the above-mentioned equation. Finally, the EQF's for dichlorobenzene and tetrachloroethylene have been used for assessing the toxicity of different chlorinated hydrocarbons for which EQF's are missing. 9.5 Normalisation referencesDue to changes in, for instance, traffic load, industrial activity and remediation actions, the overall emission of toxic substances to the environment is changing in time. The normalisation references calculated in this project are based on 1993-95 data i.e. 1993 or 1995 data has been used when 1994 data were not available. Some uncertainty in the normalisation references and the underlying data is therefore connected to the reference year chosen. It should be mentioned that not all substances contributing potentially to the overall toxic load have been included. The quantity of the toxic load captured is uncertain, as it is difficult to quantify the contribution from the multitude of substances used in minor amounts. Only emission of substances contributing more than 1% to the normalisation references presented in this section have been included in the tables. More detailed calculation sheets including data references are found in Appendix C. The following (and appendix C) "Original EDIP97" refer to the normalisation values presented in the original Danish version of the method (Hauschild et al. 1996), `EDIP English' to the reference values in Hauschild et al. (1998) and `EDIP revision' to the references calculated within this project. 9.5.1 Denmark9.5.1.1 Air The overall Danish toxicity impact potential has been calculated to: 2.91*1017 m3 air, which gives the normalisation reference 5.53*1010 m3 air/capita/year Table 9-2 summarises the substances assessed to contribute significantly to the normalisation reference. Table 9-2
Compared to the normalisation reference calculated in EDIP English (based on 1990 emission figures), the normalisation reference has approximately increased by a factor of 6 from 9.18 109 to 5.53 1010 m3 air/capita/year. The increase is caused by the inclusion of different species of nmVOC from road traffic. It is not surprising that the higher level of detail causes an increase in the normalisation reference, but it was rather unexpected that the increase was of this magnitude. Further comparison of the normalisation references from 1990 and 1994 shows that air lead emissions are rapidly decreasing due to the substitution of lead additives in gasoline. The lead contribution must be assessed to be even smaller today, as lead has been entirely substituted in petrol. According to the collected data, also the cadmium emission has dropped dramatically. It is also mentioned that if nmVOC from transport had not been included in the update, other "new" substances such as PAH, benzene emissions to water and particulate matter would have contributed significantly. As explained in the methodology section 9.4, an equivalence factor (EQF) for particles has been proposed, see Appendix B.2. However, it was difficult to assign an EQF as the toxicity of particles is very complex and highly depends on the type of particles in question. The assignment of an EQF became further complicated by the recent evidence indication that there is no threshold limit for particle exposure. Therefore, it was decided as a first pragmatic approach to use the US one year average guidance limit as a basis for the EQF calculation, see appendix B.2. Future updates of the normalisation references should, however, have particulate matter as one of the focus points. Drivsholm et al. (2002) thus argue that an effect factor of 5.5*108 m3/g (a factor 25,000 more than used in the present study!) may be realistic for at least some of particles emitted. If this factor is applied, the normalisation references will once more increase significantly, perhaps by a factor 100. If a safety factor of 10 is assigned to the particle EQF used in the present study, the contribution from particles will exceed 3%, indicating the importance of this emission. None of the particle EQF's can be judged more correct than the other, but it can be seen that determination of EQF's is very crucial in relation to the magnitude of the normalisation reference and in relation to which substances will contribute to the reference. This can also be seen when comparing the figures for Original EDIP97 and EDIP English in Appendix C.1.1. Due to re-evaluation of the EQFs between the two versions (applying the same emission figures), the relative importance of the substances has changed considerably, with N2O being the dominant in Original EDIP97 and lead in EDIP English. 9.5.1.2 Dutch experiences Further methodological considerations can be made by comparing with a normalisation project which has been carried out in Holland (Blonk et al. 1997). In that project, the Dutch LCA toxicity methodology, which differs substantially from the EDIP methodology, was applied. Two significant methodology differences are that the Dutch method uses a continuous modelling of the environmental fate of the chemicals and that all toxicity contributions are condensed into one figure. EDIP applies a simple semi-quantitative fate modelling and operates with toxicity via air, water and soil, separately. A further investigation of the Dutch figures shows that the air toxicity contribution is by far the dominating; exceeding the water toxicity contribution by about two decades. A comparison between the air toxicity for Dutch conditions as calculated by the EDIP methodology (see Appendix C.1.8) and by the Dutch methodology (distribution fraction shown in Table 9-3) seems interesting. Table 9-3
a Resistant non-halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons b Resistant non-halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons It can be seen that the SO2 and NOx contributions are by far the dominating when applying the Dutch methodology, whereas lead contributes by only about 5%. This distribution differs significantly from any of the normalisation references developed so far in the EDIP method, and it is striking how much the method and EQF's applied affect the toxicity assessment outcome. The methodology uncertainties (some of which are further discussed in section 9.6), therefore seem to be of major importance and probably exceed the emission data uncertainties substantially. However, there will always be methodology uncertainties as toxicity evaluations, especially in connection with LCA, are crude simplifications of reality. As previously described, nmVOC emissions have so far been assessed as one fraction with an EQF based on unspecified toxic action. In this way specific toxic action of some of the VOC's have been underestimated. Dutch emission data obtained from van der Auweraert et al. (1996) gives the possibility to examine a different approach to include nmVOC on a more detailed level. When using the Dutch registration of emissions, formaldehyde and benzene contributes with 52% and 33%, respectively (Appendix C.1.8). The normalisation reference is, however, only about 25% of that calculated by using the even more detailed approach applied in the present study. The calculated Dutch normalisation reference was also intended to figure out which other chemicals (industrial releases) could be assumed to contribute significantly to the overall toxic load. However, EQF's were missing for most of these substances. Only vinyl chloride could be assessed and it turned out to be of minor importance, see Appendix C.1.8. The significance of the other chemical releases may or may not be significant. However, a cautious comparison with the Dutch normalisation project (Blonk et al. 1997; see also Table 9-3) indicates that these emissions are of minor importance. 9.5.1.3 Water The overall Danish toxicity impact potential has been calculated to: 9.29*1011 m3 water, which gives the normalisation reference 1.79*105 m3 water/capita/year Table 9-4 summarises the substances assessed to contribute significantly to the normalisation reference. Table 9-4
The normalisation reference has increased by a factor 3 compared to EDIP English; from 5.9*104 to 1.79*105 m3 water/capita/year. This increase is mainly due to a 5-fold increase in mercury emission to air (and the assumed deposition). The reason may be difference in the methods for emission quantification. This is also illustrated in the data behind EDIP English, where it is assumed that about 1 ton Hg is emitted directly to the water and 0.5 ton is deposited, i.e. the major Hg toxicity was assumed to be via water. The rationale behind the effect factor for mercury is that the distribution between air, water and soil as recipient is the same regardless of the primary recipient. The potential effects in e.g. the aquatic environment will be the same for emissions to air, water and soil as reflected in the equivalency factors. In EDIP English, air deposition of mercury was also the dominating contributor, but lead and Cd were also significant. However, the emission of Pb and Cd has decreased by a factor 9 and 5, respectively, which along with the increase in mercury air emissions gives the very high mercury contribution. The dioxin contribution that was 9% in EDIP English has dropped to below 1%. The results are striking. Firstly because mercury seems to be the only significant contributor to toxicity via water and secondly because air emissions seem to be the dominating factor for water toxicity due to deposition of the emitted heavy metals. As for air toxicity, the major uncertainty seems to be considerably related to the EDIP toxicity methodology, including the applied EQF's, though emission quantities are also uncertain. 9.5.1.4 Soil The overall Danish toxicity impact potential has been calculated to: 8.19*108 m3 soil, which gives the normalisation reference 1.57*102 m3 soil/capita/year Table 9-5 summarises the substances assessed to contribute significantly to the normalisation reference. Table 9-5
The normalisation factor has decreased from 3.1*102 to 1.6*102 m3 soil/capita/year i.e. by a factor 2. Mercury and arsenic from air deposition and sludge are the main contributors to the normalisation reference for toxicity via soil. The figures are not directly comparable with the previous survey as the emissions are compiled in different groups. Mercury from air deposition and sludge are counted as total emissions of lead, cadmium and mercury, which constitute 29% of the previous normalisation reference. Arsenic is counted in the groups named metals from sludge (50% of the total potential impact) and metals from electricity generation (<1% of the total potential impact). The potential atmospheric deposition also includes a number of organic substances (POP's) of which only tetrachloroethylene contribute with 1.7% of the total potential environmental impact. 9.5.2 EU-159.5.2.1 Air The overall EU-15 toxicity impact potential has been calculated to: 2.25*1019 m3 air, which gives the normalisation reference 6.09*1010m3 air/capita/year Table 9-6 summarises the substances assessed to contribute significantly to the normalisation reference. A detailed survey of the distribution of the contributions of different substances to the toxicity potential for different European countries and EU-15 can bee seen in appendix D.1. Table 9-6
A comparison can not be made with EDIP English as EU-15 was not previously included in EDIP. The EU-15 normalisation factor is approx. 10% higher than the Danish factor. As the main contributor is nmVOC from road transport this indicates that the traffic load in the EU in average is higher than in Denmark. The distribution between other substances indicates a higher lead contribution in Europe than in Denmark. This may partly be due to a higher lead substitution percentage in petrol for the Danish market. Contributions from other substances are consequently lower compared to Danish conditions. The same assumptions and uncertainty discussions as for Danish conditions applies also to EU-15, see paragraph 9.5.1. 9.5.2.2 Water The overall EU-15 toxicity impact potential has been calculated to: 1.93*1013 m3 water, which gives the normalisation reference 5.22*104 m3 water/capita/year Table 9-7 summarises which substances have been assessed to contribute significantly to the normalisation reference. Table 9-7
A comparison can not be made with EDIP English as EU-15 was not previously included in EDIP. The EU-15 normalisation factor is approximately one third of the Danish factor. The toxicity impact potential in EU-15 as well as in Denmark are dominated by air deposition and effluent of mercury, but the air emission of mercury on EU-15 level are lower per capita than the Danish emission. As a consequence, dioxins, lead and zinc contribute with more than 1%. The reason why mercury emission to air is higher in Denmark may be due to the application of fossil fuels with high mercury content. 9.5.2.3 Soil The overall EU-15 toxicity impact potential has been calculated to: 4.71*1010 m3 soil, which gives the normalisation reference 1.27*102 m3 soil/capita/year Table 9-8 summarises which substances have been assessed to contribute significantly to the normalisation reference. Table 9-8
A comparison can not be made with EDIP English as EU-15 was not previously included in EDIP. The EU-15 normalisation factor is approx. one half of the Danish. Mercury and arsenic dominate both normalisation factors but for EU-15 arsenic is the dominating substance and for Denmark mercury is the dominating substance. 9.5.3 WorldwideThe worldwide normalisation references for human toxicity are calculated as proposed in chapter 3, Development of normalisation references for different geographic areas, by using a factor 0.8 normalisation reference for EU-15. 9.5.3.1 Air The worldwide normalisation reference for exposure via air has been calculated to: 4.87*1010 m3 air/capita/year 9.5.3.2 Water The worldwide normalisation reference for exposure via water has been calculated to: 4.18*104 m3 water/capita/year 9.5.3.3 Soil The worldwide normalisation reference for exposure via soil has been calculated to: 1.02*102 m3 soil/capita/year 9.5.4 Comparison with the previously used normalisation referenceIn Table 9-9 the estimated normalisation references are compared with the values for 1990-1992 calculated by Hauschild et al. (1998). Table 9-9
9.6 Recommendations for future updatingAs can be seen from the discussions of different types of uncertainties in the previous paragraphs, the focus for future updates should be on a better understanding of the emissions from combustion sources, i.e. both the amounts emitted from different activities and their toxicity potential. Emissions of nmVOC and particulate matter from road transport have emerged as the most important contributors to human toxicity via air, but their assessment is still associated with a large degree of uncertainty. One of the main tasks is to establish more precise knowledge about the amounts of different species of nmVOC being emitted. The approach used in the current project is rather straightforward, but the results are in practice dependent on the composition of nmVOC in exhaust from different vehicles. Here, a closer examination of available scientific literature may lead to identification of better inventories than those identified and used in Corinair. Another main task is to establish a more precise overview of the amounts of particulate matter being emitted and distributed in the environment. Little is presently known regarding the distribution of the size of particles being emitted from various combustion sources, but because of the assumed importance it can be anticipated that more information becomes available in the coming years. Thirdly, better effect factors for particulate matter are needed. As described previously, it can be argued that the effect factor for fine and ultrafine particles perhaps ought to be a factor 25,000 higher than the one used in the present study. Also here better knowledge is emerging continuously and can probably be used to establish more precise effect factors in a future update of the normalisation reference. The three issued described above are assumed to be the major concerns of a future update. There are, however, some additional points that can be addressed in order to provide more insight into the overall toxic load. These are mentioned briefly in the following sections. 9.6.1 Substances presently includedEmission data on the substances presently included are more or less frequently updated. However, it is believed that Corinair data and possibly data from the "Indicator project" (Eurostat, 1998) will be improved in the future. Data on POP's and heavy metals may contain more details for more countries, and data on particle emission is assumed to be upgraded considerably in the coming years. Appendix A lists relevant contact information in connection with a future updating. 9.6.2 Inclusion of new substances9.6.2.1 Industrial releases Quantification of emissions from the chemical industry may be improved. It should be investigated whether emission registrations have been made for other countries than Holland. In Germany, the database "Sysiphus" may in the future serve as a basis for emission quantification from the German industry. It is confidential as such, but emissions at country level may be obtainable. The database does not presently cover substantial amounts of emission data (information about Sysiphus and other data sources on use and releases from industrial chemicals can be found on: http://appli1.oecd.org). 9.6.2.2 Equivalence factors Inclusion of the chemicals requires new EQF's to facilitate an assessment of the emissions. The stepwise methodology described in section 9.3 could be used for the selection of substances to be included in an extrapolation to counties no having available data. 9.6.2.3 HPV chemicals An alternative approach for HPV (High Production Volume) chemical emissions could be estimations based on assumptions on emission of given fractions of the production volumes (emission factors). For instance, the key figures on emission ratios in the Technical Guidance Document (TGD) (EC-TGD, 1996) could be applied. These figures will give a worst case estimate, but can be highly relevant when used as an indicator of whether or not the considered chemical contributes significantly to the overall toxic load. However, this approach demands several data on production facilities and on application of the products, and would therefore be rather time consuming. Further, the possibility and relevance of including the omitted data (described in section 9.3.3) should be investigated. Suggestions are presented below. 9.6.2.4 Proposal for the inclusion of pesticides
9.6.2.5 Other emissions Other emissions assessed to be of importance at the time when the normalisation references were updated, should of course be included. As also described in the sections 9.2 and 9.5, the quantity of missing toxic load in the normalisation references is uncertain due to the load from the diffuse use of many substances in minor quantities. The lack of emission data will tend to result in too small normalisation references. 9.6.3 Methodological issuesAs indicated in the methodology section 9.4, quite a few uncertainties are connected to the EDIP human toxicity assessment method. The equivalence factors for each substance contain both information of the fate of the substance in the environment (exposure assessment) and of the toxicity of the substance per see (effect assessment). 9.6.3.1 Exposure method The exposure scenarios used in the methodology causes some uncertainty. The applied semi-quantitative exposure method is rather simple. Other methods apply more sophisticated models, which should be used with caution in LCA as they are developed for risk assessments purposes. An interesting assumption in the methods is that the contribution of air depositions is 80% on soil and 20% and water. This is a European average and does not apply to Danish conditions. If these differences were to be included, it would mean that individual EQFs would have to be calculated for each country. That approach, however, seems unfeasible. An intrinsic problem with exposure assessment in LCA is caused by the marginal nature of LCA (consideration of one functional unit). Therefore, it is difficult to include local exposure levels. Consequently, normalisation references and effect potentials are representing potential and not actual effects. This problem is dealt with in sub-project V, which should be consulted for further details. 9.6.3.2 Effect assessment A number of uncertainties are connected to the effect assessment of the EDIP/.LCA methodology. When calculating the overall normalisation references, a multitude of emissions (and thereby toxic modes of actions for the different substances) is added. This is also a problem, as different toxic responses are not additive and also because, the relative severity of different effects - as for instance irritation, reversible effects and carcinogenicity - is not considered. Also the application of safety factors when calculating the EQF's may be questioned. In LCA a realistic goal for human toxicity is to be "correct on average". LCA can not be used to obtain safe exposure levels (as is the intention in risk assessment) for all substances emitted in the product life cycle. Finally, it should be remembered that toxicity data for a lot of substance are lacking. It might therefore be very difficult to establish a good EQF for substances, which have been poorly studied in toxicological tests. The uncertainties involved in the exposure and effect assessment described above are not only connected to calculation of normalisation references but also to calculating effect potentials for a product or a product system. Due to the uncertainties in the described data, exposure and effect assessment, the normalisation references and effect potentials should be regarded as an order of magnitude rather than a numerical correct scientific number. Further, as discussed in section 9.5, the methodology uncertainties are probably more important in connection with assessing toxicity in LCA and thereby also in establishing normalisation references. For instance, it seems strange that almost the entire toxicity via the water environment is caused by deposition of mercury emitted to air, and it also seems questionable that 1,3-butadiene – the most important nmVOC species - is responsible for a main part of the toxicity via air, being highly reactive and therefore having only a short life in the environment. Many of the problems discussed above will probably disappear when the EU-funded OMNIITOX-project is completed in 2005. The project aims at creating a common method for inclusion of toxicity and ecotoxicity in LCA and can therefore provide a significant step forward for the EDIP method as well as other impact assessment methods. The development in the project can be followed at www.omniitox.net. Therefore it seems necessary to carry out an in depth analysis of the EDIP LCA toxicity method, including identification of sensitive parameters therefore seems needed. Further, the most important EQFs in relation to calculation of the normalisation references should be reviewed thoroughly in connection with a future updating. 9.7 ReferencesBerdowski, J.J.M., Baas, J., Bloos, J.J., Visschedijk, A.J.H. & Zanveld, P.Y.J. 1997a, "The European atmospheric emission inventory of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants for 1990". Forschungsbericht 104 02 672/03. TNO Institute of Environmental Sciences, Energy Research and Process Innovation and Umweltbundesamt (UBA), Germany. Berdowski, J.J.M., Mulder, W., Veldt, C., Visschedijk, A.J.H., Zandveld, P.Y.J. 1997b, Particulate matter emissions (PM10 - PM2.5 - PM0.1) in Europe in 1990 and 1993. TNO-MEP - R 96/472. TNO Institute of Environmental Sciences, Energy Research and Process Innovation, The Netherlands. Blonk, H. (ed.), Lafleur, M., Spriensma, R., Stevens, S., Goedkoop, M., Agterberg, A., van Engelenburg, B. & Blok, K. 1997, Drie referentieniveaus voor normalisatie in LCA: Nederlands grondgebied 1993/1994; Nederlandse eindconsumptie 1993/1994; West-Europees grondgebied begin jaren 1990. RIZA werkdocument 97.110x. Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Directoraat-General Rijkswaterstaat, RIZA Rijksinstituut voor Integraal Zoetwaterbeheer en Afvalwaterbehandlung & Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer, Directoraat-General Miljieubeheer. Drivsholm, T., Holm-Petersen, M., Skårup, S., Frees, N., & Olsen, S. 2002. Produkters forbrug af transport. Systemanalyse. Working report No. 44. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen. EC- TGD 1996, Technical guidance documents in support of commission directive 93/67/EEC on risk assessment for new notified substances and commission regulation (EC) No1488/94 on risk assessment for existing substances (Parts I, II, III and IV). Office for Official Publications of the European Community, Luxembourg. EEA 1997, Air pollution in Europe 1997. European Environmental Agency. Environmental Monograph No. 4. Copenhagen. ISBN 92-9167-059-6. EEA 1998a, Europe's Environment: The Second Assessment. Eurostat, European Commission, European Environment Agency. Office for Official Publications of the European Commission, Luxembourg. EEA 1998b,. Europe's Environment: statistical compendium for the Second Assessment. Eurostat, European Commission, European Environment Agency. Office for Official Publications of the European Commission, Luxembourg. EMEP/MSC-W 1998a, Transboundary acidifying air pollution in Europe. Part 1: Estimated dispersion of acidifying and eutrophying compounds and comparison with observations. Meteorological Synthesising Centres West. Report 1/98. EMEP/MSC-W 1998b, Transboundary acidifying air pollution in Europe. Part 2: Numerical Addendum. Meteorological Synthesising Centres West. Report 1/98. EMEP/MSC-W 1997, Photochemical oxidant modelling in Europe: multi-annual modelling and source-receptor relationships. Meteorological Synthesising Centres West. Report 3/97. EMEP/MSC-E 1998a, Long-range transport of selected persistent organic pollutants, Part I. Meteorological Synthesising Centres East. Report 2/98. EMEP/MSC-E 1998b, Mercury in the atmosphere of Europe: concentrations, deposition patterns, transboundary fluxes. Meteorological Synthesising Centres East. Report 7/98. EMEP/MSC-E 1998c, Modelling of long-range transport of lead and cadmium from European sources in 1996. Meteorological Synthesising Centres East. Report 5/98. Hauschild, M. 1996, Baggrund for miljøvurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. Copenhagen. (in Danish) Hauschild, M.Z., Olsen, S.I. & Wenzel, H. 1996, Toksicitet for mennesker i miljøet som vurderingskriterium ved miljøvurdering af produkter, i Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.), Baggrund for miljøvurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish) Hauschild, M.Z., Olsen, S.I. & Wenzel, H. 1998, Human toxicity as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998, Environmental Assessment of Products. Volume 2 - Scientific background. First edition. Chapman & Hall, London. Jensen, A.A. 1997, Dioxins. Sources, levels and exposures in Denmark. Working report No. 50. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen. Kirschstetter, T.W., Singer, B.C, Harley, R.A., Kendall, G.R., Hesson, J.M. 1999. Impact of California reformulated gasoline on motor vehicle emissions. 2. Volatile organic compound speciation and reactivity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999 (33): 329-336. Koch, D. 1998, Air emissions - Annual topic update 1997. Topic Report no.4. European Environment Agency. Nielsen, T., Jørgensen, H.E., Poulsen, M., Jensen, F.P., Larsen, J.C., Poulsen, M., Jensen, A.B., Schramm, J. & Tønnesen, J. 1995, Traffic PAH and other mutagens in air in Denmark. Environmental Project no. 285. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen. Nielsen, T., Jørgensen, H.E., Larsen, J.C. & Poulsen, M. 1996, City air pollution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other mutagens: occurrence, sources and health effects. The science of the total environment 189/190: 41-49. Quass, U. & Fermann, M. 1997, Identification of relevant industrial sources of dioxins and furans in Europe - The European Dioxin Inventory. Final Report. B4-3040/94/884/AO/A3. Materialen No. 43. Essen: Landesumweltamt Nordrhein-Westfalen. Ritter, M. 1997, Corinair 94 - summary report - European Emission Inventory for Air Pollutants. European Topic Centre on Air Emissions. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. RIVM, VROM, VWS 1998, Uniform system for the evaluation of substances 2.0 (USES 2.0). National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM), Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport (VWS), The Netherlands. RIVM report no. 679102044 UN-ECE 1979, Convention on long-range transboundary air pollution. United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. US EPA 1996, Air quality criteria for particulate matter. United States, Environmental Protection Agency. van der Auweraert, R.J.K., Berdowski, J.J.M., Jonker, W.J. & Verhoeve, P. 1996, Emissies in Nederland Bedreijfgroepen en Regio's 1994 en Rammen 1995. Publicatiereeks Emissieregistratie Nr. 33. `s-Gravenhage: Hoofdinspectie Milieuhygiëne /IPC 680. van der Ven, B. 1995, Default values. A discussion paper for the meeting of the SETAC workgroup "Data handling" on Sep. 4th 1995 at Gothenborg. Appendix A: Data sourcesOverview of data sources and contacts for air emissions Overview of substances included in the normalisation and corresponding data sources.
1 Only available for D, UK, A, DK, L, SCH, N in CorinAir94. Relevant contacts in relation to obtaining data on Danish and European air emissions:
Appendix B.1: Extrapolations and data handlingThis appendix gives a survey of the air emission data (including the availability of data) used in the estimation of the total potential human toxicological impact in EU-15; see Table 9-11. Information on air emissions is available for a number of European countries in EU-15 as well as outside EU-15. For the present purpose it is decided to use data from Norway and Switzerland (for heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants) in order to get a better basis for extrapolation to EU-15. Below, a general extrapolation method will be presented followed by comments to the data used to estimate the total potential human toxicological impact in EU-15. General considerations concerning extrapolation from single countries or groups of countries to EU-15 and from groups of countries to the world is presented in chapter 3, Development of normalisation references for different geographic areas. As extrapolation factor GDP [15] is chosen and a general formula can be outlined:
n is the countries with available information on emission of substance (subst x.). An example on extrapolation to EU-15 is shown in the box below. Emissions of TRI (trichloroethylene) from the following countries are included: Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, and United Kingdom.
The applied extrapolation methodology has not been verified and therefore it has to be considered as rather uncertain. However, the present extrapolation method is supposed to be as certain as any other methodology. Information on emission of the general air pollutants (SO2, NOx, N2O, CO and nmVOC) is available in a number of sources (e.g. CORINAIR 94 [16] (Ritter 1997)) due to different conventions on air pollution (e.g. Con.vention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (UN-ECE 1979)). ETC/AE [17] has calculated total emissions for EU-15 for the above mentioned substances. The quality of the summary data depends on the quality and level of detail of the data delivered by the single countries. The report uses three levels of quality/details with the countries in the different groups as described below:
These emissions are measured regularly. This part of the estimation of the total potential human toxicological impact in EU-15 can therefore be updated regularly if preferred. Information on emission of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, Zn) is available in e.g. CORINAIR 94 (Ritter 1997) supplemented by 95-update (Koch 1998) due to different conventions on air pollution (e.g. "Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution" (UN-ECE 1979)). Data on emissions of heavy metals are only available for few countries in EU-15 (for 1994), and therefore data from Norway and Switzerland will be included in the estimates of the total potential human toxicological impact in EU-15. Norway and Switzerland are supposed to be representative for EU-15. The 95-update also includes emission estimates from Greece, Italy, Netherlands and Sweden. The quality of the information varies due to less developed estimation methodologies etc. The levels of quality/details is described below with the countries in the different groups:
In addition to the data reported by CORINAIR, data on emissions of heavy metals in Netherlands (van der Auweraert et al. 1996) are included in the estimate. Information on emission of persistent organic pollutants (POP's) is available in e.g. CORINAIR 94 (Ritter 1997) due to different conventions on air pollution (e.g. "Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution" (UN-ECE 1979)). The group of persistent organic pollutants included in CORINAIR consist of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), dioxins, pentachlorophenol (PCP), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), tetrachloromethane (TCM), trichloroethylene (TRI), tetrachloroethylene (PER), trichlorobenzene (TCB), trichloroethane (TCE) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB). Data on emissions of persistent organic pollutants are only available for few countries in EU-15, and therefore data from Norway and Switzerland will be included in the estimates of the total potential human toxicological impact in EU-15. The quality of the information varies due to less developed estimation methodologies etc. The levels of quality/details is described below with the countries in the different groups:
In addition to the data reported by CORINAIR data on emissions of persistent organic pollutant in Netherlands (van der Auweraert et al. 1996) is included in the estimate. Additional data have also been used for dioxins. EU/DG XI has financed "The European Dioxin Inventory" (Quass & Fermann 1997). Data were only taken from this source if they were not available in CORINAIR, or if they were considered better than the data in CORINAIR and dated from the chosen reference years 1994 or 1995 (i.e. Belgium, France, Norway and Sweden). CORINAIR includes dioxin data from Austria, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Switzerland and UK. PAH as well as dioxins are groups of substances of different toxicity. In order to sum up the human toxicological potential of PAH and dioxins to a single number, toxic equivalence factors have been developed. By using these equivalence factors, the total PAH emission can be expressed as benzo(a)pyrene equivalents and the total dioxin emission can be expressed as 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-p-dioxins equivalents (2,3,7,8-TCDD-eq. (I-TEQ)). The dioxin equivalence factors have been used for a number of years and are internationally accepted whereas the PAH equivalence factors are still under development. This means that emissions of dioxins are normally reported in I-TEQ whereas emissions of PAH are still reported as PAH. By using the PAH and the equivalence factor for benzo(a)pyrene for all the substances, the potential human toxicological impact of PAH will be overestimated. Therefore, detailed information on distribution of different PAH's is necessary in order to calculate a more reliable potential human toxicological impact of PAH. Detailed information on the distribution of PAH's is available for Denmark; see Table 9-10. Table 9-10
The total PAH emission ( PAH) is reported to 37 ton/year and the emission expressed as benzo(a)pyrene equivalents is estimated to 4,4 ton benzo(a)pyrene-equivalents/year. Assuming that the distribution of the PAH's found in Denmark is representative, a correction factor can be determined to:
This correction factor F is used to estimate the emission benzo(a)pyrene equivalents for the countries that only have reported PAH. Table 9-11
x means that the data is used to estimate EU-15 emission. (x) means that the data are available but are not used in the estimation of EU-15 emission in this edition; the PAH results are supposed to be PAH and therefore PAH-equivalents (benz(a)pyrene) has been calculated. Appendix B.2: Effect factorsParticulate matter (PM10) Particulate matter is a chemical inhomogeneous group, and the toxicological assessment is not directly linked with the chemical composition. In most cases the heavy metals or acids emitted as particulate matter are measured as specific substances. The toxicity of particulate matter is linked with inhalation. Therefore, the toxicity of particulate matter is only relevant for emissions to air end direct exposure via air i.e. by inhalation. The EQF has been determined for particulate matter (< 10µm). The EQF is based on air quality criteria: 50 µg/m3 (annual average) (US EPA 1996). The air quality criteria expressed as annual average is assumed to be equivalent to the concentration having no adverse effects throughout a whole life i.e. equal to the human reference concentration (HRC).
It is emphasized that the suggested effect factor for particulate matter may underestimate the contribution significantly. Recent research points to fine particles (less than 2.5 µm) and ultrafine particles (less than 0.1 µm) as being of even more concern than PM10. Drivsholm et al. (2002) arguess that the effect factor should be significantly higher (5.5 * 108 m3/g) if both physical and toxic effects from inhalation of particles is taken into consideration. As discussed in Drivsholm et al. (2002), modern motors may actually emit more fine particles than conventional motors. However, there is no science-based information available that allows to calculate a precise effect factor for particles from different types of vehicles/fuels. Nor is it possible to calculate a normalisation reference because there is no information available on the amounts of different particle sizes being emitted from human activities. The toxicity of particulate matter should therefore be kept in focus for future updates of the normalisation reference. In the meantime, the normalisation references and the effect factors developed in this project should be used with caution. nmVOC from road transport Effect factors for nmVOC from road transport, jet engines and ferries were established by using information from Corinair94 (Ritter, 1997) regarding their composition and by using the existing effect factors for the single VOC-species where available and supplementing with the default factor used in the original EDIP97-calculations, i.e. 10.000 m3/g for all species without a specific effect factor. Table 9-12 sums up the established effect factors and the most important species, while Table 9-17 to Table 9-19 gives a detailed overview of the composition and the importance for a number of fuel/vehicles.
Table 9-12. Effect factors for human toxicity (air) for nmVOC from different fuels/vehicles A similar approach was applied in a system analysis of road transport in Denmark (Drivsholm et al, 2002). That report allows for a detailed comparison of the resulting effect factor for nmVOC from diesel exhaust, and here there is a good accordance between the findings in the two projects. The main difference between the two calculations is that Drivsholm et al. identifies the most important species by a qualitative approach whereas in the current project all species are included in the calculations. The contribution to the updated normalisation references was established by combining different types of information from Corinair94 (Ritter, 1997; www.aeat.co.uk/netcen). In Corinair, information is available regarding the amounts emitted from different sources (Table 9-13): - Passenger cars (SNAP code 070100) - Light duty vehicles < 3.5t (SNAP code 070200) - Heavy duty vehicles > 3,5t and buses (SNAP code 070300) - Mopeds and motorcycles < 50 cm3 (SNAP code 070400) - Motorcycles > 50 cm3 (SNAP code 070500) - Evaporation of gasoline Four countries (Finland, Italy, Spain and Portugal) have not reported the distribution of nmVOC on the single SNAP code activities. For these four countries, it was assumed that the distribution is similar to the average distribution for the other eleven countries. One country, Germany, does not report the amounts of nmVOC from evaporation. Here, it was assumed that the relationship between the total amounts emitted from road transport and the amount evaporating is equal to the average proportion in the other fourteen countries.
Table 9-13. nmVOC from road transport. Adapted from Corinair94 (Ritter, 1997). The emission profiles differ significantly between diesel and gasoline fuels for the same type of vehicles, and also between countries for the same type of fuel/vehicle combination. In order to reflect these differences, the total nmVOC emissions for each country were (re)distributed on the following types of vehicles (Table 9-14): - Gasoline LDV - Diesel LDV - Gasoline PC - Diesel PC - Diesel HDV - Mopeds and motorcycles - Gasoline evaporation
Table 9-14. nmVOC from road transport redistributed on different fuels/vehicles. With the effect factors for different fuels/vehicles and the amounts of nmVOC being emitted from the same combinations in EU-15 countries, the overall contribution to human toxicity via air can be calculated for each of the EU-15 countries (Table 9-15).
Table 9-15. Contribution from nmVOC – road transport to the normalisation references for human toxicity (air). Table 9-16 shows the relative contribution from the different fuels/vehicles and illustrates clearly that the main contribution comes from passenger cars. As nmVOC from road transport is the main contributor to human toxicity via air this means that when examining product systems (other than person transport), the relative importance of this impact category will be small, because person transport in general not is included in inventories. When comparing alternatives, however, products that are demanding with respect to transportation will have a significantly larger impact when the newly established effect factors are applied..
Table 9-16. Relative contribution from different fuels/vehicles It is once more remarked that the uncertainty in the normalisation references is relatively high. The uncertainty is demonstrated by the fact that the Corinair inventory quotes two different inventories for the composition of nmVOC from motor exhaust. They have an almost comparable level of detail, but with a little less detail in the information the effect factors for different types of fuels/vehicles decrease with about 30%. This uncertainty is, however, within the general target of precision, i.e. to provide the right order of magnitude. This claim is supported when comparing the effect factors for different fuels/vehicles with the effect factor for overall vehicle exhaust as measured in an American road tunnel. A detailed inventory for this can be found in Kirschstetter et al, 1998. When applying the same calculation method as above, the effect factor for "combined exhaust" can be calculated to 2.44 E+6. This figure is smaller than that calculated for the individual types of fuels/vehicles, but is still within the same order of magnitude. It is also remarked that no attention was given to nmVOC from other cources of combustion, the reason being that detailed information on the composition was not available and/or that the contribution – measured by weight – was small compared to the constribution from road traffic. Table 9-17. Composition of nmVOC in exhaust from different fuels and vehicles Table 9-18. Contribution from single nmVOC species to the effect factors for different fuels and vehicles Table 9-19. Contribution to EF(hta) in percent Effect factors for VOC from industrial processes The Corinair94 Inventory allows for calculation of a number of effect factors related to the overall emissions of VOC (i.e. including methane) from specific types of plants. The level of detail is less than for traffic related emissions and some of the key emissions are either not identified in the inventory or they are not characterized in the EDIP database. The figures in the following table should therefore only be considered as crude estimates.
Table 9-20. Effect factors for VOC from industrial processes. The effect factors can be integrated in the EDIP database and used with caution. Better – or more precise – estimates can be obtained by establishing effect factors for each of the species. This would most probably mean a reduction in the effect factor for VOC from polypropylene plants, where the main emissions are propylene that is considered as almost harmless to humans. Appendix C: Data and calculation of normalisation referencesThis appendix contains data used in the calculation of normalisation references concerning human toxicity. The appendix is split up in emissions contributing to respectively: C.1 Human toxicity by inhalation C.2 Human toxicity by intake via water C.3 Human toxicity by intake via soil References to the data source is given in the individual tables. C.1.1 Denmark, normalisation reference, air C.1.2 EU-15, normalisation reference, air
C.1.3 Austria, normalisation reference, air
C.1.4 Germany, normalisation reference, air
C.1.5 Greece, normalisation reference, air
C.1.6 Italy, normalisation reference, air
C.1.7 Luxembourg, normalisation reference, air
C.1.8 Netherlands, normalisation reference, air
C.1.10 Sweden, normalisation reference, air
C.1.12 United Kingdom, normalisation reference, air
C.2.1 Denmark, normalisation reference, water
C.2.2 EU-15, normalisation reference, water
C.2.3 Netherlands, normalisation reference, water
C.3.1 Denmark, normalisation reference, soil C.3.2 EU-15, normalisation reference, soil C.3.3 Netherlands, normalisation reference, soil Appendix D: Distribution of impact potentialsThe appendix is split up into three separate sections, presenting the distribution of the following impact potentials: Appendix D1: Normalisation references for human toxicity via air for EU-15 and the individual Member States Appendix D2: Normalisation references for human toxicity via water for Denmark, the Netherlands and EU-15 Appendix D3: Normalisation references for human toxicity via soil for Denmark, the Netherlands and EU-15 D.1 Normalisation references, air; distribution of impact potentials D.2 Normalisation references, water; distribution of impact potentials
D.3 Normalisation references, soil; distribution of impact potentials
Footnotes[10] In this context `environment' does not cover indoor consumer exposure nor work environment. [11] It should be noticed that only actual emissions are included. Releases from environmental pools created in the past (for instance mercury from sediments and leaks from landfills) are not included. Whether or not these releases should be included is controversial and should be discussed further in connection with a future updating of the methodology. [12] Corinair94 operates with 10 sector sources: 1. Combustion in energy and transformation industries, 2. Non-industrial combustion plants, 3. Combustion in manufacturing industry, 4. Production processes, 5. Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels/geothermal energy, 6. Solvent and other product use, Road transport, 8. Other mobile sources and machinery, 9. Waste treatment and disposal, 10. Agriculture and forestry, land use and wood stock change. [13] BS represents the black soot particles from combustion, and is dominated by coal smoke and diesel soot. BS is a relevant indicator to assess health effects, but the measurement technique provides fairly inaccurate results (EEA 1997). [14] Also EQF's for heavy metals are "category" EQF's as the metal may be present in the environment as pure element or as a part of various compounds with different toxicity. The EDIP EQF's for heavy metals are calculated based on reasonable worst case assumptions. [15] Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the total output of goods and services for final use occurring within the domestic territory of a given country, regardless of the allocation to domestic and foreign claims. [16] CORINAIR means "CORe INventory AIR" and is a part of the work programme of the European Environment Agency (EEA). [17] ETC/AE means the European Topic Centre on Air Emissions.
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