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Potential measures for reduction of releases of heavy metals, POPs, HCFCs, BFRs and industrial greenhouse gases with particular reference to Russia, Ukraine and China

7 HCFCs

• 7.1 Introduction to HCFCs
• 7.2 Sources and releases
• 7.3 Main reduction measures
• 7.4 International regulation and agreements
  • 7.4.1 Montreal Protocol and Vienna Convention
  • 7.4.2 Other agreements
• 7.5 Overview of existing activities

Most of the descriptive text in this chapter is extracted from recent authoritative reviews (UNEP-RTOC, UNEP-TEAP, 2002). Where other references were used, this is noted in the text.

7.1 Introduction to HCFCs

Perspective

The so-called Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS), of which HCFCs are one group, interfere in certain atmospheric physio-chemical reactions taking place in the stratospheric ozone layer, resulting in a lowering of ozone concentrations in this layer; so-called "holes" in the ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the biosphere from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Intergovernmental negotiations for an international agreement to phase out ozone depleting substances started in 1981 and concluded with the adoption of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in March 1985 (UNEP, Ozone 2005). In 1987, the Montreal Protocol to the convention was adopted. The Protocol sets quantitative goals for the reduction of production and use of selected ODSs. Periodically the Protocol has been amended, whereby more substances have been included in the Protocol and other adjustments and supplements have been made. HCFCs were introduced in the Protocol by amendments in 1992 and in 1999. HCFCs have somewhat lower ODPs than the CFCs targeted first in the international process (see table below).

Table 7-1 Name, formula, ODP and GWP for selected HCFCs and a few CFCs and a halon for reference

*1 Intervals indicate the range of ODPs for several isomers with the same name and net overall formula.

*2 Indicates that the data in question have not been collected for this report.

Consumption trends

CFC use has dropped 87% globally since 1989 largely due to the phase-out of its use in developed countries. With the current cap in developing ("Article 5") countries and reductions in use during the rest of this decade, this use will continue to drop. HCFC production has concurrently increased. It is expected that this will begin a downturn, as use in developed countries will be reducing due to current regional and national regulations that are even more restrictive than those of the Montreal Protocol. The latter would mandate reductions in consumption of 35% in developed countries by 2004. This may have been slightly offset due to expected increases in developing countries as HCFCs play an important role in facilitating CFC phase-out in those countries. HFC-134a has emerged as the key agent in replacing CFC use in many applications. Its production has levelled due to improved product stewardship in selection of uses, minimisation of emissions during use, and, in certain regions recovery and recycling. The net impact of these activities is to reduce the net ozone depletion by about 83% as compared to the levels seen in 1989 (UNEP, TEAP, 2002).

A major use of HCFCs is as foam blowing agents. Historically, the foam blowing agent selection made by the foam plastics manufacturing industry was based heavily on CFCs. The first technology transition in the early 1990s led to the introduction of transitional substances such as HCFCs as well as the increasing use of hydrocarbons and other non-ODSs. This transition is still taking place in developing countries. In developed ("non-Article 5") countries, particularly in Europe and North America, attention is now firmly focused on the second phase of technology transition out of the transitional substances. This transition is concentrating attention on the emerging HFC-based technologies, although it should be stressed that much consideration is still being given to the optimisation of hydrocarbon and CO₂ technologies and these technologies are gaining market share in several sectors. The technical acceptability of hydrocarbons, particularly in polyurethane formulations, has expanded as several previous shortcomings have been overcome. In several key sectors market penetration now exceeds 50%.

7.2 Sources and releases

In the global scale official data presented via the UNEP Ozone Secretariat are mainly production data and consumption data, and not emission data. This is because the Montreal Protocol works with quantitative reductions of production and consumption and not emissions. This is relevant, because by far the most of the ODSs used are ultimately emitted - in many cases the emission is however somewhat delayed, because it is contained in refrigeration systems, closed cell polymer foams etc. This means that stocks are build up which will have impacts in the future. Some emission data may exist, but they have for this reason not been searched for systematically.

Global HCFC consumption distributed on sectors

A sector analysis of HCFC use is provided in table 7-2. These data represent about 86% of global consumption. The largest consumption of HCFCs was in the closed cell foam application as blowing agents and represents 53% of all HCFC on an ODP-weighted basis. This was due to the use of HCFC-141b. This application is declining and may by now have been phased out in Europe and the USA. Therefore, total consumption in this sector should be decreasing. This will be somewhat offset by growth in developing countries.

Use in refrigerants was nearly as large on an ODP-weighted basis with 47% of the total. The vast majority of this was from HCFC-22 with minor amounts from the use of HCFC-124 and HCFC-142b mostly as components in refrigerant blends. It is expected that blends will grow somewhat in the future, as these are service replacements, which can be used for CFC installations with minor modifications.

The use of HCFCs for other purposes seems marginal and is therefore not given priority here.

Table 7-2 Industry data on consumption of HCFCs in 1999 distributed on applications - data here represent about 86% of total global consumption; in % of HCFC and in tonnes ODP (AFEAS, as cited by UNEP- TEAP, 2002) *1

*1 The reported AFEAS (industry) data do not include HCFC-123, and do not include use of any HCFC in China, India and Korea. RAC means refrigeration and air conditioning.

HCFC production data

Global data for production and consumption are given emphasis here because they illustrate the important contributions from especially China, and they show how production and consumption have evolved dramatically in the regions of interest due to the successive substitution of CFCs with HCFCs.

Data for global HCFC production are presented in table 7-3.

China, India and Korea made sharp increases in HCFC production in 1993 and 1994 and then again in 1999. The total increase was from 249 ODP-tonnes in 1989 to 5013 ODP-tonnes in 1999 and to 6713 ODP-tonnes in the year 2000 (of which about 6000 ODP-tonnes are produced in China. If one compares it to the consumption, it makes China and India net exporters of HCFC chemicals at about 1,300 ODP-tonnes per year. The almost 30-fold increase has made particularly China (and to a lesser extent, India) a significant source of HCFCs.

HCFC consumption data (1989-2000)

Global HCFC consumption data are included in table 7-4. Total consumption for all Parties has increased on a fairly continuous basis (except for 1996 during which there was a dip; however, this was a year for which consumption data reported might be incomplete). Consumption increased about 160% for the years 1989-2000.

HCFC consumption in Central and Eastern Europe decreased during 1989-1999 by 36%; however, significant increases during 2000 suggest transition from CFC use.

Consumption in China, India and Korea increased 540% over the period 1989-2000. The increase had appeared to peak in 1995 with declines during following years. There were dramatic increases in HCFC consumption between 1998, 1999 and 2000 going from 1,756 to 5,355 ODP-tonnes in just two years.

Over the period 1989-1999, the proportion of HCFCs consumed by OECD countries has averaged about 80% of the total global consumption. Most recently, this has fallen to 61% in 2000 largely due to consumption growth in China, India and Korea and a significant reduction in such use in the OECD countries in 2000. It is expected that the proportion of HCFC global consumption used in developing countries will increase as the HCFC use restrictions will have serious impacts on the consumption in Europe and the USA.

Table 7-3 Reported HCFC production in selected regions and globally 1989-2000 (tonnes ODP as aggregated by UNEP (UNEP- TEAP, 2002)

Table 7-4 Reported HCFC consumption in selected regions and globally 1989- 2000 (tonnes ODP as aggregated by UNEP (UNEP, TEAP, 2002)

Russia

Un-official data for production and imports of HCFCs in the Russia are presented in table 7-5 below (anonymous, 2005). Keeping in mind that on the global scale, HCFC-22 represents the most of the consumption used for refrigeration purposes, these data could perhaps indicate that the majority of the currently reported Russian production and import is used in the refrigeration sectors (if the Russian export is smaller than its consumption). These data do however not reflect whether foaming with HCFC-141b is done or not in the Russian Federation.

Table 7-5 HCFCs production and import in the Russian Federation 2000-2003; tonnes of substance

Ukraine

According to UNEP (2004), the 1989 base year HCFC production (82 t ODP) in Ukraine had been terminated in 2003, and consumption had dropped to 49% (80.4 t ODP) in 2003 from a consumption in the base year 1989 of 164 t ODP.

China

According to UNEP (2004), the 2003 HCFC production in China was 11,745 t ODP, and consumption was 7,809 t ODP); that means China was a net exporter of HCFCs.

7.3 Main reduction measures

Substitution/phase-out

The substitution of HCFCs is closely linked to the substitution of CFCs on one side and on HFC on the other side (see chapter 6 on industrial greenhouse gases). HCFCs have been - and perhaps still are - phased in as intermediate substitutes for CFCs, because HCFCs can be used more or less directly in some applications designed for CFC use. For some uses, of which refrigeration is a major category, HFCs are also technically quite suitable alternatives to CFCs and HCFCs, and HFCs have zero ODP. In the context of this report, substitution of both HCFCs and HFCs are priority fields due to their ODP and GWP characteristics. The substitution/phase-out options mentioned for refrigeration and foam blowing for HFCs in chapter 6 are therefore also generally relevant for HCFCs, and a direct substitution to non-ODP, non-GWP substances should be aimed at. Such substitutes include hydrocarbons, CO₂, ammonium, DME and water depending on application.

Release reductions

For refrigeration uses containment, improved maintenance and recycling are important release reduction measures; primarily for existing units and technologies/geographical regions where non-ODS, non-GWP alternatives development and commercialisation is slow.

Refrigeration applications

New equipment As per 2002, the primary zero ODP/low GWP solutions for substitution of CFCs in new refrigeration equipment were summarised by application by (UNEP-RTOC, 2002) as shown in table 7-6 below.

Table 7-6 Primary zero ODP/low GWP solutions for substitution of CFCs and HCFCs in new refrigeration equipment (UNEP-RTOC, 2002)

The above solutions are also being applied in developing countries (so-called Article 5(1) countries), where in several sectors the conversion is not complete, however, the number of conversions is steadily increasing. As per 2002, there still were a certain amount of new equipment manufactured with CFCs, also in domestic, but particularly in commercial and transport refrigeration.

Existing equipment

Worldwide, a significant amount of installed refrigeration equipment still uses CFCs and HCFCs. As a consequence, service demand for CFCs and HCFCs remains high. The refrigerant demand for these service needs is best minimised by preventive service, containment, retrofit, recovery and recycling. Recovery at decommissioning or scrapping of equipment, not only in the case of refrigerators, is an important topic, which receives increasing attention now that the ODS consumption in developed countries has been restricted to essential uses. The first step in addressing the refrigerant conservation topics cited above is through training of installers and service technicians, together with certification and regulations. Countries where programs have been successful have had comprehensive regulations requiring recovery and recycling.

Foam blowing agents
The major zero ODP, low GWP substitutes are shown in table 7-7 (UNEP-TEAP, 2002). Carbon dioxide or CO₂ as a blowing agent in polyurethane foam can be chemically generated from the reaction between water and isocyanate but also added in both polyurethane and other foams as an auxiliary blowing agent in liquid or gas form. The different options are hereafter referred to as CO₂ (water), CO₂ (LCD) or CO₂ (GCD).

Table 7-7 Zero ODP, low GWP foaming agents (UNEP-TEAP, 2002)

LCD: Liquid carbon dioxide; GCD: Gaseous carbon dioxide; "water": Intrinsic chemical reaction between water and isocyanate to form CO₂; see text above.

A broader 2002 description of the anticipated substitution development for foaming agents in the period 2005-2010 is given in table 7-8 below. The table illustrates how HCFCs and HFCs are expected to serve as intermediate (or permanent?) substitutes for CFCs in the near future.

Discussion of options

The phase-out of ODS in the foam sector has forced the industry to innovate. The first technology transition in the early 1990s led to the introduction of transitional substances such as HCFCs as well as the increasing use of hydrocarbons and other non-ODSs. This transition step is still taking place in developing countries. Meanwhile, attention in developed countries is on phasing out transitional HCFCs. This is concentrating attention on the emerging HFC-based technologies as well as the further optimisation and use of hydrocarbon and CO₂ technologies, which are continuing to gain market share in several sub-sectors.

The phase-out of CFC use in the polyurethane flexible foam sector is now largely complete, even in developing countries, although some small discontinuous processes still represent a challenge. In the flexible sector there has been little use of transitional technologies.

In the appliance polyurethane rigid foam sector, there has been a tendency to switch in one-step transition to hydrocarbons. CFC usage has been totally phased out in the construction-foam markets.

As annual consumption of ODSs decreases, the focus is shifting towards the management of emissions from delayed release sources such as closed cell foams.

Both Japan and Europe have already taken steps related to ODS recovery and destruction from appliances. However, recovery of ODSs from buildings is likely to pose a more significant and costly challenge. This may be a further driver towards HC or CO₂ options or wider changes in building practice to facilitate recovery. The technical and economic feasibility of the recovery of blowing agents from foam at end-of-life will continue to be an area of significant study over the next few years.

For SMEs and particularly low volume users, there is no economically feasible solution unless the financial implications of investments are overcome. In many foam sectors, the alternative blowing agents are hydrocarbons, which are less expensive than HFC blowing agents but require expensive investments to satisfy safety requirements. A solution might be interest-free loan schemes, even in developed countries, where the investment cost is repaid from savings in blowing agent expense. However, no such schemes are yet being considered.

The requirements of the Montreal Protocol and most national implementation procedures provide little economic incentive. However, recovery and destruction would be economic if credit was given to mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions also, in addition to the direct benefit to the ozone layer. Regulatory or trading schemes would have to reclassify ODS destruction to engage the necessary economic drivers.

Table 7-8 Anticipated development in substitution of foaming agents in developed and developing countries according to (UNEP - TEAP, 2002); polyurethane foams first and other foams last

7.4 International regulation and agreements

7.4.1 Montreal Protocol and Vienna Convention

HCFCs are covered since 1994 by the Montreal Protocol (1987) to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985). The Montreal Protocol addresses a number of other substance groups with ozone depleting properties (CFCs, halons, etc.).

The Vienna Convention encourages intergovernmental cooperation on research, systematic observation of the ozone layer, monitoring of CFC production, and the exchange of information.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in September 1987. It was designed so that the phase out schedules could be revised on the basis of periodic scientific and technological assessments. The Protocol was adjusted to accelerate the phase out schedules. It has also been amended to introduce other kinds of control measures and to add new controlled substances to the list.

While most governments have ratified the Protocol, ratification of the Amendments and their stronger control measures lag behind.

The Copenhagen Amendment was adopted in 1992 and entered into force on 14 June 1994. The amendment introduced control measures for consumption only for HCFCs (Annex C, Group I substances). The amendment further introduced control measures for both production and consumption for two new groups of substances, namely HBFCs (Annex C, Group II substances) and methyl bromide (Annex E, Group I).

The Montreal Amendment was adopted in 1997 and entered into force on 10 November 1999. This is the only amendment that did not introduce new substances to the protocol. Instead, the amendment introduced the requirement for licensing systems to allow control and monitoring of trade in substances controlled under the protocol.

The Beijing Amendment was adopted in 1999 and entered into force on 25 February 2002. The amendment introduced control measures for production for HCFCs (Annex C, Group I substances) and imposed restrictions on trade with non-Parties for these HCFCs. The amendment further introduced control measures for both production and consumption for one new group of substances, namely bromochloromethane or BCM (Annex C, Group III substance).

China and Ukraine have not ratified the last two amendments (Montreal and Beijing amendments). Russia has not ratified the last three amendments (Copenhagen, Montreal and Beijing amendments); (UNEP, Ozone, 2005). This means that Russia has currently not ratified any obligations as regards reductions of HCFCs, while Ukraine has ratified and China is in accession to obligations as regards consumption of HCFCs, but not to obligations on production and exports of HCFCs.

Requirements to HCFC of the Montreal Protocol as amended (per 2005)

As mentioned above, the current version of the Protocol as amended defines binding requirements regarding consumption, production, imports and exports of HCFCs. The Protocol provides special conditions for developing countries which had a limited consumption of CFCs (below specific thresholds) before 1999 ("article 5 Parties"). According to documents accessed on the Ozone secretariat homepage (UNEP-Ozone, 2005) China falls under this category.

HCFC consumption

For non-article 5 Parties, the Protocol defines a set of binding, consecutive reduction targets relative to a baseline consumption. The baseline consumption is the sum of the consumption of HCFCs calculated in ODP (ozone depletion potential) in the country in 1989, and 2.8% of the consumption of CFCs calculated in ODP in the country in that same year (presumably to allow for intermediate substitution of CFCs with HCFCs during the overall substitution process). The annual consumption of HCFCs must not exceed 65% of this baseline consumption in and after 2004, 35% in and after 2010, 10% in and after 2015, 0.5% in and after 2020 (and may only be used for servicing of refrigeration/AC systems), and from 2030 and thereafter HCFC consumption must not exceed zero (must be completely eliminated).

For developing (article 5) countries (China among others), the consumption of HCFCs must after 2015 not exceeds its 2015 consumption level, and must be eliminated by 2040.

The Protocol defines a mechanism by which developing (article 5) countries can be provided with specific financial and technical assistance paid by developed parties (non-article 5 parties). In case the developing country (party) has not been able to meet its deadlines, it has the possibility of claiming that this assistance has not been made adequately available to the country. This will initiate scrutiny among the assembly of parties, as for deciding appropriate steps to be taken.

HCFC production

In and after 2004, the annual HCFC production in non-article 5 countries (parties) must not exceed a baseline production calculated as the average of the consumption baseline (1989) calculated as described above, and a production baseline calculated as the sum of the production of HCFCs calculated in ODP in the country in 1989, and 2.8% of the production of CFCs calculated in ODP in the country in that same year.

For developing (article 5) countries (China among others), the annual production of HCFCs in and after 2015 must not exceed a 2015 baseline production calculated according to the principles described above, but with 2015 as the baseline year. However, in order to satisfy basic domestic needs, article 5 countries may exceed the 2015 baseline production by up to 15%.

Other principles

The Protocol defines a number of other important principles and requirements which will however not be described in detail here. These include (among others) principles/requirements for:

• trade and target transfers among parties to the protocol;
• trade with non-parties (banned according to specific principles and deadlines);
• calculation of consumption and production;
• data reporting (rather comprehensive);
• licensing of imports and exports;
• assessment and review of control measures of the Protocol (at least every 4 years);
• research, development, public awareness and exchange of information;
• a financial mechanism and transfer of technology to assist article 5 countries.

7.4.2 Other agreements

HELCOM

By the Helcom Recommandation 11/11 on "Measures to reduce the emissions of harmful chlorofluorocarbons from ships" adopted in 1990, the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) recommends that the Governments of the Contracting Parties to the Helsinki Convention cooperate within the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to promote early and effective global measures for minimizing air pollution from ships, including in particular decisions on reduction objectives and target dates, and to take actions:

• To prohibit the use of R-12/R-11 and other harmful CFCs on new ships;
• To take steps to promote, instead, the use of HCFC R-22 or other less harmful refrigerants in marine refrigeration installations as they become available;
• To prohibit the use of CFCs as detergents on ships; and
• To apply the following measures in order to reduce the emission into the air of R-12, R-11 and other harmful CFCs from existing marine refrigeration installations:
  • to modify such installations, storage receptacles, valves and means of transferring harmful refrigerants to such installations etc. so that the emission into the air of these can be reduced;
  • to require that those maintaining such installations using harmful refrigerants are capable of taking the necessary precautions to limit or eliminate emissions of such refrigerants during maintenance;
  • to require further that those responsible for the operation and maintenance of such installations are made aware of and motivated to avoid the environmental effects of CFCs

Other agreements

Besides these, HCFCs are not covered by any other agreements addressed in this study.

7.5 Overview of existing activities

An overview of identified, existing activities conducted by donor organisations and international finance institutions is presented in table 7-9.

Table 7-9 Identified initiatives in the Russian Federation, Ukraine and China addressing HCFC

Other information about ongoing activities

The homepage of the Ozone Secretariat (UNEP-Ozone, 2005) provides a large number of meeting documents etc. which may provide additional information on the implementation status at various years of ODS-reducing activities in various countries. It has been beyond the framework of this study to investigate these large amounts of information in detail. Such documents may however be one data source that could be investigated further prior to initiation of projects on HCFCs in the countries addressed in this report.

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