OMIT – Manual for environmental calculation of international freight transport
4 Calculation of environmental data
Calculation of the specific environmental data is based on the conditions under which the transport modes operate. Different corridors and parameters must be specified, depending on whether a calculation is made for truck, train or ship. Therefore step 3 and 4 in the following calculation will be described separately for each mode of transport. At last there will be comments on the result sheet.
4.1 Calculation and allocation of environmental load for truck
Truck calculations are based on simulation of long distance transport in TEMA2000 (COWI, 2000). As data in TEMA2000 are based on a national 48 tons truck, which has a bigger engine than the 40 tons truck mostly used for export, the energy consumption and emissions are not completely in accordance with reality. You are therefore advised to make your own calculations and use data for km/l in the calculations.
4.1.1 Corridors and distances
OMIT contains a distance database with road distances from the borders in Padborg and on the Oresund Bridge plus a number of ferry ports abroad to different European cities. The Danish part of the distance should be added, either from the Danish port or from the border in Padborg or on the Oresund Bridge. Names and distances can be overwritten, so that the right information appears on the print.
Figure 6.
Selection of corridor and change of distance and place names for truck.
In order to find distances between other cities, you are advised to ask the transport provider or to use a route planner, which is available on the Internet. For reasons of comparison it is important to use the same tool each time. On the site www.reiseroute.de you can find a number of Route Planning tools.
In some cases transport by truck is divided in several part transports, from factory to the terminal of the transport provider and from there to the customer. Instead of using the direct distance, you should use the distance actually travelled. If there is a significant difference in the transport from the factory to the terminal and from the terminal to the customer, it should be divided in two part transports.
4.1.2 Calculation of environmental data
The energy consumption of the truck and the emissions per km depend on the following factors:
 | Average fuel consumption (km/l) |
| Average weight of load when loaded (ton) |
| Euro-Norm 0,0 – 4,0 (Euro-Norm) |
| Percentage of km without load. |
Figure 7.
Parameters that can be changed. As many true values as possible should be
specified, as a minimum km/l.
Transport without load is calculated as a trip, which follows upon the calculated trip. If km/l is specified, this is also used for transport without load. Otherwise the energy consumption and emissions of transport without load are calculated as 75% of what a truck carrying 16 tons freight would consume.
The Euro-norm may vary between 0 and 4. By truck transport the Euro-norm of the actual truck is specified, but when multiple trucks are used for transport of goods to a customer during a year, the average can be specified with one decimal. The average Euro-norm may also be applied, when there is no registration of the trucks that have carried out the concrete transports, but the average of the trucks used by the forwarder is known.
The diesel consumption depends on the total average goods weight. The maximum goods weight is 25 tons. Table 1 shows some rough values for km/l as function of the goods weight. If no km/l is specified, OMIT calculates km/l as function of the total average goods weight and Euro-norm.
Table 1.
Km/l in intervals for an average load between 0 and 25 tons for Euro-norm 1-4
Load tons |
0-½ |
>½-3 |
4-7 |
8-11 |
12-16 |
17-21 |
22-25 |
km/l |
4 |
3,75 |
3,5 |
3,25 |
3 |
2,75 |
2,5 |
For Euro-norm 0, the consumption is approx. 1.5% higher.
When a smaller truck is used for a short pre- and end-haulage trip, it may be included in the calculations. You can make corrections by making a part transport for the allocation truck and add the correct values for the used truck to step 4 in "Parameters" as minimum km/l, Euro-norm and the average goods weight. Due to differences in engines etc. it will cause a minor error in the different emissions, and it ought not be used, except when the part transport accounts for a small part of the total transport (see enclosure A.1). For calculation of longer transports in Denmark please see the national calculation program TEMA2000, to be found on the homepage of the Danish Ministry of Transports: www.trm.dk.
4.1.3 Allocation of the energy consumption and emissions on the freight
The energy consumption and emissions are allocated by weight or volume depending on the specific gravity of the goods.
When the goods weigh more than 333 kg per m3, it is calculated as heavy goods, and the allocation will be according to the total weight on the truck as specified in step 4 "Parameters" "Average weight of load when loaded" (ton).
If the goods weigh less than 333 kg per m3, it is calculated as voluminous goods, and the load is charged with the share of space it takes up of a normal truckload. If volume of the goods is specified in step 1 "Volume of cargo" (m3), it is charged corresponding to the share of "Average load when loaded" (m3) in step 4.
When calculation is done according to other freight specifications than m3, e.g. loading metre or pallet space, these units may be converted to m3. This will have influence on the allocation of energy consumption and emissions between the goods on the truck, if the load weighs less than 333 kg per m3, but it will not influence the total energy consumption and emissions.
In step 1 volume of cargo (m3) is to be specified besides weight of cargo. For loading metres the number of loading metres freight is multiplied by the volume in m3 of the truck and divided by the number of loading metres on the truck.
For 2 loading metres goods on a trailer that holds 72 m3 the calculation is:
= 2 loading metres * 72 m3 / 13,5 loading metres = 10,66 m3.
In step 4 you select the button "Parameters" and for "Average load when loaded" (m3) the average number of loading metres sold is multiplied by the volume in m3 of the truck and divided by the number of loading metres on the truck. For the above-mentioned truck the calculation would be:
Truck with average freight of 11 loading m = 11 loading m * 72 m3 / 13,5 loading m = 58,66 m3.
In the above example the goods will now be charged with 10,66/58,66*100% = 18,18% of the total environmental load from the transport.
4.1.4 Example of calculation
P.E. El receives a delivery of a full 20’ container with partially assembled computer cabinets that have a total weight of 4 tons. Environmental data is wanted for the truck transport from Bremerhaven to the factory in Jutland. The transport provider informs P.E. El that two containers are used, but this is all the data he gets. A fair calculation of the emissions is based on the average values for transport by truck in OMIT, including a goods weight of 16 tons.
As a 20’ container fills up half a truck, P.E. El’s cabinets should carry half the environmental load. This is done by setting "Volume of cargo" (m3) in step 1 to 46 and "Average load when loaded" (m3) in step 4 to 92.
If the computer cabinets are transported in a 40’ container, the calculation will be made on the basis of a total load weight of 4 tons, as the truck can carry no additional goods.
4.2 Calculation and allocation of environmental load for train
Theoretically trains can go wherever there are tracks. In reality most goods are carried by complete trains in a few established corridors. European freight transport by rail predominantly takes place by electric driven trains. Shunting and short distances may be carried out by diesel driven trains, but this has hardly ever a significant influence on the total picture of the environmental load of the transport.
Trains differ from the other transport modes in the way energy is not transferred to work on the transport mean, but it is produced by water and coal power plants and is shared by a large number of users. Concerning different users of electricity, this is easy to manage, but it is difficult when the energy consumption and emissions have to be divided between consumers of electricity and heat from the same power plant.
As combined heat and power supply is rare outside of Denmark, these circumstances do not have much significance in international transports. It is, however, included in OMIT, because it is possible to use two different methods for dividing energy consumption and emissions, either the method of the EPA which presumes an energy efficiency of 200% for heating (standard), or the energy method where energy consumption and emissions are divided according to the produced energy, regardless of whether it is electricity or heat.
The use of green electricity and nuclear power has big influence on the emissions in international railway transport. When the railway companies buy electricity produced on water, wind, sun and/or nuclear power, railway transport by electric engines has no emissions.
Furthermore green electricity has lower energy consumption. For electricity produced on coal the consumption is related to the energy in the coal that was burned. Depending on the power plant, there is an efficiency of 33 to 40%, corresponding to a loss of between 67 and 60% of the coal energy in the transformation to electricity. When the energy consumption and the emissions for electricity are calculated, it includes both what became electricity and what was lost.
When using green electricity it does not make sense to talk about efficiency; what could be measured, the loss - the wind? So when for example an electric train driven by coal, uses 33 MJ electricity + 67 MJ loss, the engine, driven by green electricity, only uses 33 MJ green electricity + 0 MJ loss = 33 MJ to carry out the same work. A comparison of the energy consumption of the transport modes therefore makes no sense, while the emissions from the transport are comparable. For nuclear power the efficiency per convention is 33%.
4.2.1 Corridors and distances
For railway transport the main corridors, which are used for freight to and from Denmark were selected. Additionally some smaller railway stations are included in order to be able to account for all the way to the customer.
In the principal network systems the distances cannot be changed, as they are often crossing country borders and thus using different sources of electricity. In the secondary network system, which is situated within an area of electricity production, distances and names of places may be changed so that it corresponds with the actual situation. If the secondary railway station to which the goods are transported is not listed, select another in the same country and overwrite name and distance with the correct data.
It is characteristic for secondary railway stations that if they are selected in the upper box, there will only be railway stations from the same country in the lower box, try for example with respectively Hamburg (main stations) and Bochum (secondary stations) in Germany.
Figure 8.
Selection of corridors and distances on the principal and the secondary
network system for train transport in step 3.
When diesel trains are to a great extent used for the transport, the place name must be specified "Dummy location 1" and "Dummy location 2", which can later be overwritten with the real place names. First you find the distance for electric trains then you select the Dummies, overwrite the distance, which is 100 km as default, and correct the place names.
You may get the railway distances from the transport provider, or for short distances, you may measure them on a map. They are also available on some homepages, e.g.:
| www.railcargo.at under "kundenservice/serviceleistungen/DIUM/" |
| www.greencargo.com under "miljökalkyl". |
4.2.2 Calculation of environmental data
On the distances mostly used, the principal network system, the trains are full most of the time, whilst outside the principal network system a mix of full and empty wagons is transported. The allocation of the environmental load is therefore calculated on the basis of the average load in the principal network system respectively in the secondary network system.
In OMIT energy consumption and thus emissions, is calculated as a function of the total weight of the train not including the locomotive. The total weight of trains is calculated as number of wagons multiplied by the weight of an empty wagon including the weight of for example swap bodies and containers plus the total average weight of goods carried on the train.
The locomotive is not included in the calculation as a variable, as it is usually changed in case of border crossings. Furthermore the engine must have a certain basis weight to be stable and pull the wagons; therefore the weight does not vary very much.
The necessary energy and the resulting emissions are calculated by the country for an average of the electricity production of the country, unless the railway company buys or produces specific electricity. The electricity production data used for the individual countries is showed in enclosure B.1
Figure 9.
Basic data for train transport depend on whether the principal network system
or the secondary network system is used.
Environmental data for railway may vary a great deal from year to year, e.g. if a railway company changes from buying green electricity without emissions to buying electricity produced in a coal power plant.
4.2.3 Allocation of energy consumption and emissions on the goods
The total energy consumption and emissions are allocated on the freight carried on the train. The allocation is always done in relation to the share of the total average weight of goods carried on the train. The total average goods weight is the average of both outgoing and returning trips in the corridor used.
The default data used are calculated on the basis of block trains with swap bodies, so-called combined trains. As a freight train is a very variable unit, it is recommended to collect data from the operator of the trains used. If this is not possible, the following values may be used in step 4 "Parameters" for the remaining traffic in the principal network system.
Table 2.
Values for international trains with closed or open wagons, respectively
containers
|
Weight of empty wagon |
Total weight of freight |
Number of wagons |
Closed wagons |
21,6 |
561 |
22 |
Container wagons |
25,6 |
473 |
22 |
Open wagons |
16,6 |
671 |
22 |
See enclosure B.2 for basic data for train.
For trains in the secondary network system the total weight of goods should be reduced by 60% and the number of wagons by 20%. These are estimated values based on, among other things, Danish figures in "Godstransportkæder" (TetraPlan A/S, 1999).
4.2.4 Example of calculation
65 tons freight transported in the principal network will be charged with 10% of the environmental load for a train carrying 650 tons goods. When the train returns empty, the total average goods weight stated would be 325 tons, and the goods will be charged 20% of the environmental load instead.
The allocation of environmental load takes place only on the basis of weight, i.e. it doesn't matter if the freight fills up 2 or 12 wagons.
4.3 Calculation and allocation of environmental load for Ro/Ro ferries
The term ferry includes a mixed group of ships, which carry passengers, passenger cars, trucks and containers that are placed on deck. All this may be carried individually or mixed; that is a ferry is not a well-defined unit with few characteristic parameters as is the case for the other ship types - container ships and bulk carriers.
In order to maintain OMIT as an easy-to-use model, one calculation model was selected, which covers the so-called Ro-pax ships and Ro/Ro cargo ships, latter of which can carry only few or no passengers besides the rolling goods.
4.3.1 Corridors and distances
Figure 10.
The ferry services are selected in the list. See fig. 6 for truck for
description of the functions of the screen.
In step 3 you select the actual ferry service. OMIT contains the distances for the ferry services to and from Denmark and across the Channel, that are used most frequently.
If other ferry services are used, you may get the distance from the shipping company or you may measure it on a map. The latter may apply if e.g. small amounts of goods are transported to Cyprus by truck. Here the work effort should be in relation to the importance in the total result. It is also possible to find sea distances on the Internet, for example:
http://pollux.nss.nima.mil/pubs/pubs_j_show_sections.html?dpath=DBP&ptid
=5&rid=102 or via link from www.skibstekniskselskab.dk. (1 nautical mile = 1,852 km).
4.3.2 Calculation of environmental data
Ferries maintain regular service with more or less capacity utilisation, and as mentioned they are not a homogeneous group. In OMIT it has been chosen to carry out calculations for a typical cargo ferry with 2000 lane metres (lm = metre lane). As ferries, however, have very different sizes, speed, oil consumption/h and capacity utilisation, it is strongly recommended to use the real values for oil consumption. You may get them from the shipping company.
Freight transport by ferry is settled by use of lane metres and this is the unit used for calculation and allocation of energy consumption and emissions.
The following parameters are included in the calculations of energy consumption and emissions:
| Specific oil consumption (ton/h) |
| Capacity lane metre |
| Capacity utilisation (%) |
| Average weight per lane metre (ton/lane metre) |
| Speed (knots) |
Figure 11.
Basic data for Ro-Ro ferries long distance (> 500 km). For shorter
distances "Length of truck/trailer/container" is default 16,5 m. The speed must
be changed if the ship size is changed.
Figure 12.
Normal ferry service speed in knots as a function of lane metres for Ro-Ro
cargo ferry.
If the size of the ship is changed, the user must also change the speed. In OMIT the deviation may be up to +/-10% from the service speed shown in figure 12.
The oil consumption per hour primarily depends on the speed and the size of the ship, and secondarily on the weight per lane metre and the capacity utilisation. The oil consumption is default 0, and if no value is specified, OMIT will calculate on the base of the default values. Enclosure C.1 shows the oil consumption per hour as function of lane metre.
4.3.3 Allocation of energy consumption and emissions on the freight
Energy consumption and emissions are allocated on the total of used lane metres and are hereafter charged the truck/trailer/container according to length. (Length of Truck/trailer/container (lane metre)).
A trailer measures approx. 14 lane metres, a semi-trailer 16,5 lane metres, a road train approx. 18,5 lane metres and one TEU approx. 6,1 lane metres.
If containers are double-stacked on a Ro/Ro ferry, the increased capacity utilisation can be corrected by dividing the length of the deck used by the containers. In the field "Length of Truck/trailer/container (lane metre)" 3,05 lm per double-stacked TEU is specified.
When goods from different shippers are carried on the same truck/trailer/container, the environmental load is allocated according to share of weight. (Total weight of cargo on Truck/trailer/container (ton)).
4.3.4 Example of calculation
A shipping company informs that the ferry has 2400 lane metres, and no further specifications are given for the service. Figure 12 indicates a speed of 20 knots. For a 16,5 m truck with standard values the energy consumption will then be 2,0 MJ per tonkm.
The itinerary indicates, that the forward speed is 21,5 knots. When this value is specified in step 4, "Parameters" under "Speed" (knots) it is seen that the energy consumption is 2,5 MJ per tonkm, or an increase of 25% by an increase in speed of 7½%.
4.4 Calculation and allocation of environmental load for container ships
Container transport by ship is a comprehensive and specialized line of transport. This gave the effect, among other things, that the different lines are served by ships of very different sizes. OMIT therefore has typical sizes for the container ships, depending on the covered distance between the ports. These distances are only intended as a guide, as a container ship serving Europe-Asia, could have 2 calls of port in Europe with a distance of 1.000 km between them, although it holds 6,000 TEU.
Table 3.
Ship size as function of distance covered
Interval km |
0 - 926 |
927 - 2779 |
2780 - 4629 |
4630 - 6483 |
6484 - 10186 |
10187 - 8 |
TEU |
500 |
1000 |
2000 |
3000 |
4000 |
6000 |
The size of the ship is expressed in number of containers it holds. The size is specified in TEU = Twenty Foot Equivalent = 20’ container.
4.4.1 Corridors and distances
For container transport you can select destination and departure ports from a list. It works in two ways, as destination and departure ports are not arbitrary:
| European container transport to and from Danish container ports, including feeder transport to the Atlantic ports |
| Overseas container transport from the Atlantic ports (Bremerhaven, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Gothenburg) to the rest of the world. |
Figure 13.
Distances for container ships. You may look at figure 6 truck for the
function of the screen.
You can overwrite names by using the field "Other locations", and you can change distances by using the arrow keys at "Distance".
If, however, it is a matter of ship transport from Aarhus to Brisbane, not only the distance needs to be changed but also it is essential to describe the transport chain correctly. This is done by returning to step 2 in the program and adding an extra part transport in order to divide the trip in a pre-transport from Aarhus to the called Atlantic port e.g. Bremerhaven, and a main transport from Bremerhaven to Brisbane.
As seaborne transport of containers to and from Denmark takes place on feeder ships, the distance in the database is based on passage through the Kiel Canal. For ships bigger than approx. 2,000 TEU, the distance north of Skagens Odde should be used instead.
Some of the larger shipping companies have web sites, where you can see the actual transport chain and distances. If you cannot find the distance here, you may find it on the Internet, e.g.:
http://pollux.nss.nima.mil/pubs/pubs_j_show_sections.html?dpath=DBP&ptid
=5&rid=102 or via link on www.skibstekniskselskab.dk. (1 nautical mile = 1.852 km).
4.4.2 Calculation of environmental data
Figure 14.
Basic data for container ships. Please notice that the size depends on the
distance but the capacity utilisation is default 75%.
The following parameters are used in the calculation of energy consumption and emissions for container ships:
| Specific oil consumption (ton/h) |
| Capacity (TEU) |
| Actual loading (TEU) |
| Speed (knots) |
When the ship capacity is changed, you are required to change the speed, see fig. 15.
Figure 15.
The normal service speed of a container ship depends on the size. Calculation
can be made for normal service speed of the container ship +/- 10%.
In C.2 an oil consumption/h as function of ship capacity in TEU by 75% capacity utilisation is showed.
A container (TEU) on the ship has an average weight of 10 tons incl. 7.5 tons of goods. This cannot be changed. The used average weight per TEU being only 10 tons is owing to the fact that the maximum loading capacity of a container ship corresponds to ten times the total number of TEU that the ship can carry.
Weight of cargo per TEU for actual container is only valid for the containers that transport the goods, which are basis for calculation. The figures are used for allocation of environmental data on the goods in the actual container; see section 4.4.3.
4.4.3 Allocation of energy consumption and emissions on the goods
As freight for containers is calculated according to the number of TEU, the total environmental load for a trip is allocated evenly on the number of TEU carried on the ship, regardless of the weight of the TEU in question.
When goods from or for different customers are carried in the same container – general cargo/consolidated goods/part loads, the total emissions for the container are allocated on the goods according to the weight of cargo per TEU for actual container that the customer's goods account for.
4.4.4 Example of calculation
A transport of 22 tons meat is carried out in a 40’ container from Aarhus to Bremerhaven. In step 4 "Weight of cargo per TEU for actual container" 11 tons is specified, and the total energy consumption is 124 MJ per ton.
If the shipment were 26 tons in a 40' container instead of 22, the energy consumption would drop to 105 MJ per ton. This is in accordance with reality, as the additional goods weight in one container has next to no influence on the total energy consumption of the ship.
4.5 Calculation and allocation of environmental load for bulk carriers
Default for a bulk carrier in OMIT is 45,000 tons loading capacity, but it is possible to make calculations from 2,000 to 150,000 tons loading capacity. As bulk carriers are often chartered for the actual transport tasks, it is important to use the right size in order to find the real environmental load.
4.5.1 Corridors and distances
Transport of bulk cargo by bulk carriers mostly takes place from A to B. Loading takes place in one port and unloading in another. In OMIT there is a database, which includes direct distances from Aarhus, Copenhagen and Esbjerg to a number of ports in Europe and to major overseas ports.
If there is only little freight, it is an option to measure the distance on a map, otherwise the correct distance should be acquired from the shipping company or via the Internet, e.g.:
http://pollux.nss.nima.mil/pubs/pubs_j_show_sections.html?dpath=DBP&ptid
=5&rid=102 or via link on www.skibstekniskselskab.dk. (1 nautical mile = 1,852 km).
For bulk carriers the distance is calculated under the presumption that the ship goes via Skagens Odde and not via the Kiel Canal, which is too small for many of the ships used. (A maximum of depth 9.5 m and approx. 28,500 tons loading capacity).
The Suez Canal can be passed by bulk carriers with up to approx. 142,500 tons loading capacity. If larger ships are used, the distance south of Africa must be calculated.
4.5.2 Calculation of environmental data
The energy consumption per km is a function of:
| Specific oil consumption (ton/h) |
| Capacity (ton) |
| Actual loading (ton) |
| Speed (knots) |
| Ballast in % of total distance travelled |
Figure 16.
Basic data for bulk carrier. Remember to change the speed when the loading
capacity is changed. See figure 17.
Enclosure C.3 shows the oil consumption/h for a bulk carrier as a function of the size of ship with 100% loading and before ballast voyage.
When the share of ballast voyage is included it is owing to the fact that bulk cargo often include some transport without load. An example of this is the oil tankers that carry raw oil to Europe and return empty; they have a ballast share of 50%. The energy consumption for an empty bulk carrier is approx. 94% of what it is, when it is fully loaded. This high value is due to the fact that the speed is typically higher in ballast, than when the ship is loaded, and that the ship must fill up its ballast tanks in order to press the propeller sufficiently, but also in order to keep a certain draught ahead.
The ballast share has influence on the calculations, because it increases the energy consumption per km depending on the ballast percentage, while the distance is not influenced.
Figure 17.
Normal service speed in knots for bulk carrier as a function of loading
capacity. OMIT may calculate for speeds deviating up to +/- 10%
4.5.3 Allocation of energy consumption and emissions on the goods
The allocation of the energy consumption and the emissions is often done by goods weight; i.e. the shipment is charged with a share of the energy consumption and emissions according to the share, the weight of the shipment makes up of the actual shipload. If the weight of the shipment exceeds the actual capacity, it will be calculated as succeeding trips.
4.5.4 Example of calculation
A feedstuff business has purchased 88,000 tons of grain in France. The options are to have it shipped via Aarhus on a coaster with a capacity of 8,000 tons in the same pace it is sold, respectively to rent warehouse capacity in the port and charter a bulk carrier with 44,000 tons loading capacity.
By using the small ship, the energy consumption will be 433 MJ per ton and by using the big ship it will be 171MJ per ton.
4.6 Results
The results are showed in two Excel spreadsheets. One shows the results and the other one shows the preconditions for the calculations. In the one showing the preconditions, the changes in default values are highlighted for easy control.
It is possible to arrange the results and paste them into different Windows applications for environmental reports for customers or to draw data and make further calculations with them in a spreadsheet.
Figure 18.
Result sheet. Standard Excel spreadsheet, layout and decimals defined by the
user. The use of particles or PM10 is defined by the units of the basic models.
The result sheet shows energy consumption and emissions:
| for the total transport |
| per km = total/km |
| per ton = total/ton |
| per tonkm = total/(ton*km). |
The different results may be used for different purposes.
The total may be used in environmental reports, green accounts etc. where the total environmental data of the firm are accumulated.
The figures per km show the environmental load of the actual transport per km.
For the allocation of environmental load on the products a calculation per ton is suitable, as the figure can follow the product and be added to the other contributions in the chain from production, handling and allocation. The environmental load per ton may also be used for budget purpose.
The calculation of tonkm may partly be used for comparing the environmental efficiency of different transport modes, but it is also very useful for estimating the efficiency of different transport providers of the same transport mode.
Figure 19.
Basic data for the calculations. Where standard values are changed and for
km/l the original values are to the right of the new value.
4.6.1 Using the results
A large number of factors have significance to the total energy consumption and emissions of a transport. It is therefore important to include all factors when looking at changes in the elaboration of the transports.
A change in time of dispatch of the goods may thus influence the entire transport chain.
There may be direct impact on both number of km covered, the average weight of goods on the truck and percentage of empty load. More indirectly the Euro-norm, filter technology and km/l may be influenced, when changing transport provider.
Further in the transport chain the new time of shipment may imply a different station of departure or use of a different ferry service.
Optimisation of freight transport is, as appears of the above example, a complex task which is never ending.
OMIT does not deliver easy solutions, but it may contribute to an indication of whether or not the course is right towards less energy consumption and emissions for each ton of goods.