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Waste Strategy 2005-08

2 Focus on preventing loss of resources and environmental impact from waste

• 2.1 Volumes of waste and economic development
• 2.2 Prevention of waste
• 2.3 New indicators for loss of resources and environmental impact
  • 2.3.1 Definitions
  • 2.3.2 Materials and forms of treatment
  • 2.3.3 Indicators for resource savings
  • 2.3.4 Indicators for resource savings
  • 2.3.5 Indicators for landfill requirements
  • 2.3.6 Summary of the new indicators
  • 2.3.7 Conclusion

Waste represents resources that are on their way to being lost. The challenge ahead is to limit the loss of resources as far as possible, in an efficient manner, taking into account both the environment and economics. Preventing the loss of resources is not an easy task and it is vital that people and enterprises be actively involved. Information must make it clear to people and enterprises where they can make a difference. Local solutions will be given focus, and the benefit must be clear for the relevant players. There must be no doubt about when and where it is worth saving resources.

For example, people must know which products are worth buying if they wish to contribute to reducing environmental impacts. And they must have the opportunity to choose to repair their products and hence avoid throwing goods away if it is not necessary.

Enterprises should be aware that sensible management of their raw materials has economic benefits. The less waste, the greater the earnings will often be. For many enterprises, environmental management is a good instrument for gaining a good overview of where waste arises in the process. It needs to be easier for enterprises to act in the interests of both their own financial situation and the environment. However, this must not entail a deterioration in enterprises' competitiveness, and it will be necessary to ensure that the initiatives take place on as uniform a basis as possible.

We can prevent loss of resources and environmental impact in several different ways. Firstly, we can work towards waste simply not being generated. We will immediately see an effect from our efforts in this area in the volumes of waste calculated each year. We must ensure that we use our resources efficiently, so that they are not wasted.

We can also recycle waste and hence reduce the consumption of virgin raw materials. When a decision has to be made about waste management, it is important that it is built upon a solid and well-founded basis. We must recognise that even though waste is recycled, some resources will be lost in this area also. Furthermore, recycling cannot take place without a certain level of impact on the environment.

Finally, we also need to look at how hazardous waste is, in order to help prevent environmental impacts. Over time, waste needs to become less hazardous, and high-quality waste management needs to ensure that many environmental problems related to future treatment can be avoided.

New and better foundation

To date, our environmental initiatives have been measured in terms of the volume of waste. Denmark has been one of the few countries in the EU that has been able to calculate society's total annual waste production in tonnes, and summarise how this waste has been managed. A high level of recycling has typically been a goal for any good initiative.

In the future, we must continue to focus on the volume of waste, but initiatives must be based on an improved decision basis that links environmental problems to the tonnes of waste being produced at any given time.

Denmark has therefore developed and calculated a number of new indicators that tell something about the impact on resources and the environment from waste. These indicators calculate resource and energy consumption and the need for landfilling associated with a number of different forms of treatment. Initially these indicators have been calculated for 22 materials found in waste.

The purpose of the new indicators is to gain a better foundation for making decisions about waste treatment. The new indicators will enable us to prioritise and calculate whether it is better, in terms of the environment and resources, to recycle a particular waste fraction instead of incinerating it. Unfortunately, the existing statistical base does not permit us to work out the magnitude of the environmental benefit that would result from focusing efforts on completely avoiding waste by waste prevention. Thestatistical base is still insufficient for this purpose.

We will continue to use the volume of waste as an indicator for how well we are doing in the area of waste management. It is a simple indicator to use. What is new, is that this indicator will no longer stand alone. It will be supplemented by calculations of how many resources are lost in waste – from the time the raw materials are recovered and the products are produced through to when the waste is recycled, incinerated or landfilled.

The first generation of the new indicators will be published together with Waste Strategy 2005-2008. However, we will only reap the full benefits from the new indicators once a series of indicators is available, calculated over a number of years.

It will take time before we have a fully developed prioritisation tool. During the term of the Strategy, we must therefore work to develop several new indicators and calculate them over several years. The new waste indicators must thus be refined so that they provide a total picture of resource consumption and environmental impact. These indicators cannot stand alone. They must be supplemented with an assessment of the materials' environmental and health effects.

The new waste indicators will be combined with cost-benefit analyses. This will provide a solid basis for assessing whether the specific waste fractions are being treated in the way that is best for the environment and at the right price.

2.1 Volumes of waste and economic development

Increasing volumes of waste are closely linked to increasing resource consumption. Prevention of waste ^[2] therefore continues to be an important element in sustainable development. Sustainable development ^[3] means that economic growth must not be linked to a corresponding growth in resource and energy consumption, and increased pollution, including waste.

It has been shown that the economy is responsible for 80% of the increase in the volume of waste. The greater the disposable income of the population, the more waste is generated. But the economy does not play an equal role for all fractions. The remaining part of the increase in the volume of waste is caused by other factors such as changes in legislation and production patterns.

The challenge is to decouple the increase in the volume of waste from general economic growth. Responsibility for solving the problem of increasing volumes of waste is shared by all sectors of society. Our initial goal is thus to ensure that increases in the volumes of waste do not occur at the same rate as the increase in economic development.

The figure below shows that the total volume of waste increased faster than economic growth in the period 1995 to 1996. This was followed by a decline in the volume of waste, and another increase during 1999 to 2000. However, this is only the picture for the total volume of waste. Appendix D shows the development in volumes of waste for each sector.

Waste generation is the result of all activities in society. If total waste generation is shown in proportion to gross national product (GNP), it provides an indication of the waste intensity in society.

The graph shows the relative changes in gross national product at constant prices ^[4] (GNP), waste generation and waste intensity, which is the relationship between the relative change in waste generation and the relative change in GNP. As can be seen in the figure, waste intensity declined until 1999 (decoupling) and has subsequently been relatively constant. This means that growth in the volume of waste since 1999 has largely corresponded to growth in GNP. Thus this trend does not point in the direction of decoupling, but rather an approximately constant relationship between growth in the volume of waste and economic growth, as measured by GNP.

Since the volume of waste in a number of sectors is increasing, it is important to continue to work towards reducing the volume of waste. Forecasts for future volumes of waste show that these volumes will rise, unless active efforts are made to reduce them. This can be seen, for example, in the European Environment Agency's report, "Environment in EU at the turn of the century".

2.2 Prevention of waste

There are many barriers that need to be overcome in order to prevent waste generation. It is important for each party to evaluate whether their behaviour is appropriate. We must also find and choose the right instruments to ensure that we act on a sensible basis. It is important to evaluate whether the existing instruments, in reality, counteract resource savings, leading to the generation of even more waste. The legislation needs to support preventative initiatives, and there needs to be sufficient knowledge and development in this area. Last but not least, communication efforts must be targeted.

In this Waste Strategy, it has been decided to take action initially where the barriers are small and where results can be achieved in the short term at relatively low cost.

In the long term, the use of resources and each product's real environmental impact must be reflected in its price. All proposed legislation is currently subject to environmental assessment, and in the future, these assessments should pay greater attention to resource consumption and waste generation. When future market initiatives are being developed, there should be greater focus on waste prevention.

In November 2000, a conference was held on the prevention of waste, at which many players participated.

The outcome of the conference was that these players indicated which preventative initiatives they would like to see implemented in the years ahead. Everyone was agreed on working to reduce the volume of waste, but there was not agreement on which instruments should be used to reach the goals.

The table below contains an overview of the Waste Strategy initiatives for waste prevention. Each initiative is described in more detail for each sector in Appendix D.

It is currently very difficult to calculate the environmental effect of these preventative initiatives, as no empirical data is available for changes in the behaviour of the population and trade and industry. However, an attempt will be made to evaluate the environmental effects and the total socio-economic consequences of these preventative initiatives.

2.3 New indicators for loss of resources and environmental impact

New waste indicators have been developed and calculated for loss of resources and landfill requirements for 22 materials present in waste. These indicators express the environmental benefit associated with moving a particular waste fraction from landfill to recycling or incineration. This means that for each material type, the loss of resources and energy associated with landfilling the entire fraction is calculated, and compared with a new treatment situation in which a realistic quantity is either recycled or incinerated ^[5]. These indicators are calculated on the basis of the volume of waste in 2000, and no forecasts have been made for the future volume of waste.

These indicators can be used to prioritise environmentally initiatives within each fraction, since they tell us whether anything can be gained in terms of resources or the environment from recycling or incinerating the waste. In this way, the new indicators can be used to select where we achieve the minimum environmental impact. And as mentioned in chapter 1, the indicators provide an important foundation when we have to calculate the quality of waste treatment.

Armed with these new indicators, we will be able to select specific areas upon which to focus our future initiatives. We have now calculated these indicators for the first time, and this information can provide a basis for new initiatives. But it is important to mention that before these specific initiatives are implemented, a more thorough environmental and economic analysis of the measures will be carried out.

The new indicators require a very large LCA statistical base, analysis of material flows and complicated calculations, and are therefore associated with a certain degree of uncertainty. The method and statistical base have been critically reviewed and it has been concluded that the indicators undoubtedly provide a more accurate picture of the real environmental impacts than is the case for existing indicators, based exclusively on the volume of waste. However, the indicator for landfill requirements is extremely uncertain.

Due to a lack of LCA data, it has not been possible to calculate the indicators for all waste fractions. Neither do the indicators include calculations of toxic effects, since statistics in this area do not exist. It is therefore vital that the indicators are supplemented with a qualitative assessment of hazardous emissions from the processes in each material's life cycle before the final decisions about new initiatives are made.

New treatment methods have been developed for the environmentally harmful PVC and impregnated wood fractions. However, LCA data is not available for these processes, so these methods have not been included in the calculation of the indicators.

2.3.1 Definitions

For each of the selected materials, three indicators have been calculated:

1. Resource consumption
2. Energy consumption
3. Landfilling requirements

Resource consumption is expressed in person-reserves. A person-reserve is the amount of the resource available per person. (For non-renewable resources, the available amount is calculated per world citizen, but for renewable resources, the available amount is calculated per person in the region).

Energy consumption is calculated in person equivalents. A person equivalent corresponds to the amount of energy (primary energy) a Danish resident uses in a year.

Landfilling requirements are also expressed in person equivalents. In this context, a person equivalent is the amount of landfill generated per Danish resident, per annum.

2.3.2 Materials and forms of treatment

The indicators are based on the volume of waste from 2000, and the treatment being employed that year. The volume of waste that was landfilled, incinerated, recycled and re-used (if any) is shown in figure 2.a.

Figure 2.a. The volumes of material treated, divided by form of treatment and material (tonnes).

Sludge is specified as 20% dry matter content.

As the figure shows, we landfill quite large quantities of paper and cardboard, impregnated wood and plaster. Paper and cardboard, wood, organic domestic waste and the many contributions from various plastic materials comprise the largest quantities incinerated. The largest quantities being recycled are concrete, tiles, asphalt (incl. re-use), paper and cardboard, and iron and steel.

2.3.3Indicators for resource savings

Figure 2.b. Resource savings achieved based on the existing waste treatment for the various materials, calculated in PR (person-reserves).

Figure 2.b. shows how many resources we have saved based on the existing treatment of waste, compared to the situation if all waste was landfilled. These resource savings are divided into energy resources and other resources.

In particular, recycling metals has led to the greatest contribution to the resource savings already achieved.

Lead, tin and zinc are not shown in the figures, since the necessary LCA data is not available to calculate these indicators. But it is estimated that the resource savings for lead, zinc, and tin would be at the same level as those for the other metals, since these resources have a relatively short supply horizon.

Paper, wood, and the six plastic fractions contribute particularly to energy resource savings, since incineration of these replaces energy raw materials used for electricity and heat production.

The building materials – concrete, tiles and asphalt – are not shown on the figure, since no significant resource savings are achieved through recycling. This is because concrete, tiles and asphalt replace resources that exist in abundant quantities.

Figure 2.c. Potential for further savings in resource consumption for the various materials, calculated in PR (person-reserves).

Figure 2.c shows how much room there is for improvement, for example, if we were able to recycle a large proportion of a fraction which is currently being incinerated or landfilled. Thus we have an indicator value that shows how many more resources can be saved by improving the existing treatment.

A positive value indicates that an environmental benefit can be achieved if we can save resources by moving from the existing waste treatment to an "optimised waste treatment" with increased recycling. As part of the calculation, an assessment was made as to how much more it would be realistic to recycle.

For paper, plastic (excluding PVC), aluminium and copper, figure 2.c shows that there is the potential for significant resource savings by increasing recycling. For wood, resource savings can be achieved by increasing incineration in waste incineration plants.

The figure also shows that we cannot save further resources by recycling greater quantities of organic domestic waste, automobile rubber and oil than is currently the case.

For PVC, it is assumed that a larger proportion of PVC waste will be landfilled for environmental reasons, leading to negative savings in energy resources.

2.3.4 Indicators for resource savings

Figure 2.d shows how much energy we have saved based on the existing treatment of waste, compared to the situation if all waste were landfilled.

Figure 2.d. Energy savings achieved based on the existing waste treatment for the various materials, calculated in PE (person equivalents).

This figure shows that we have already saved a significant amount of energy through treatment of most of the materials suitable for incineration. This reflects the fact that incineration with energy recovery is a significant element in existing waste management. In particular, the last ten years of expansion using power generating waste incineration plants has contributed significantly to the energy savings achieved. Generating power at waste incineration plants replaces natural gas and other fossil fuels with waste.

Figure 2.e. Potential for further savings in energy consumption for the various materials, calculated in PE (person equivalents).

Figure 2.e shows how much more energy we can save, for example, if we were able to recycle a large proportion of a fraction which is currently incinerated or landfilled. Thus we have an indicator value that shows how much more energy consumption can be saved by improving the existing treatment.

Figure 2.e shows that further energy resources can be derived from our waste. In other words, we can save energy resources by increasing recycling of waste fractions compared to current levels. However, this is not the case for organic domestic waste, PVC and automobile rubber.

If we are to save more energy resources, we must focus on increasing the recycling of aluminium and paper. For most plastic materials and for glass packaging, modest energy savings can be achieved by increasing recycling as opposed to incineration. The big potential for further energy savings for wood is due to the assumption of an increase in incineration as opposed to landfill.

2.3.5 Indicators for landfill requirements

The indicator values for landfill requirements are extremely uncertain.

Figure 2.f. Savings in landfill requirements achieved based on the existing waste treatment for the various materials, calculated in 10PE (person equivalents).

Figure 2.f shows how much we have reduced our landfill requirements based on the treatment of waste in 2000, compared to the situation if all waste was landfilled.

The indicator values for saved landfill requirements show that the existing waste management is ensuring that large quantities of waste are not ending up at landfill sites.

The indicator also incorporates the "hidden material flows", wherever this has been possible. The hidden material flows are included in data for coal extraction, and partially in data for metal extraction. Landfilled waste will thus be included in connection with the extraction of new materials or energy to replace materials lost through landfilling or incineration.

For most metals, there are significant landfill requirements in connection with the extraction of ore. However, due to the lack of data for these hidden streams, they are generally not included in the calculations. If the hidden streams were incorporated everywhere, increased recycling would lead to significant savings in landfill requirements for most metals.

Figure 2.g. Potential for further savings in landfill requirements for the various materials, calculated in 10PE (person equivalents).

Figure 2.g shows how much more we can save in landfill requirements, for example, if we were able to recycle a larger proportion of a fraction which is currently incinerated or landfilled. Thus we have an indicator value that shows how much more can be saved in landfill requirements by improving the existing treatment.

For glass and aluminium, there is a significant potential to save landfilling as glass that is not recycled is incinerated, generating slag requiring landfill. Similarly, aluminium does not burn in the thicknesses that are typically found in household waste, and hence contributes to the slag volume.

For several materials, an increase in landfill requirements can be seen. For concrete, tiles and PVC, the increased landfill volumes are due to allowance for requirements for increased sorting of contaminated materials for landfill, compared to the situation in 2000. There has been a shift here from recycling to landfilling.

The results must be interpreted with care, as the indicators are derived from many different types of waste, without weighing up the degree of environmental hazard associated with these types of waste.

2.3.6 Summary of the new indicators

With the existing waste management, involving 66% recycling, 24% incineration, and 10% landfilling, significant savings in resource consumption have been achieved for waste from paper and cardboard, wood, and these metals: aluminium, iron and steel, and copper. Significant energy savings have been achieved through the existing waste treatment of paper and cardboard, wood, PE plastic, aluminium, and iron and steel. There have been savings in landfill requirements under the existing waste management for the majority of waste fractions, except for impregnated wood, PVC and plane glass.

The most important potential for further savings in both resource consumption and energy consumption is found in the metals, paper, and plastic – excluding PVC. The greatest potential for further savings in landfill requirements is found for glass packaging and aluminium.

2.3.7 Conclusion

The development and calculation of the new indicators has marked the beginning of a valuable process. We are gaining greater and more detailed knowledge about the environmental impact of waste. These indicators are contributing to providing a better foundation for making the right decisions in waste management.

We are only at the beginning of this process, and it will be many years before we have a well-developed and complete tool to use in prioritising initiatives. But we have taken the first step in developing the right tool to ensure that we achieve better quality in our waste management. If we use the indicators and the other knowledge in this area together with cost-benefit calculations, we will be well on the way to having a tool that tells us where we can gain improved cost-effectiveness from environmental policies.

During the years ahead we need to develop new indicators for further environmental effects, and to improve our statistical base. We must regularly update the indicators we have already calculated to get an overview of whether we are sending waste to the treatment process that is most beneficial for the environment.

Footnotes

[2] Definition:Waste prevention covers all activities that lead to a reduction in the volume of waste that is recycled, incinerated and landfilled. Direct re-use, where a product is used again in its original form and for its original purpose (e.g. a refillable bottle), prevents waste.

[3] As described in Denmark's National Strategy for Sustainable Development, the Danish Government, June 2001.

[4] Constant prices are prices for the year adjusted for inflation, and are thus an indicator of real growth.

[5] In other words, these indicators reveal what is saved by using each form of treatment, compared to 100% landfilling of the particular waste fraction.<0}

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Version 1.0 June 2004, © Danish Environmental Protection Agency