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Update on Impact Categories, Normalisation and Weighting in LCA 11 Calculation of weighting factors
Niels Juul Busch, Rambøll 11.1 SummaryThe aim of this chapter has been to calculate new weighting factors for a broad range of impact categories for Denmark, European and global level. The method applied for calculating the weighting factors is based on the environmental regulation of substances, impact categories etc. Hence, it is the same methodology as the one used in the EDIP study (Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). However, weighting factors based on regulation that will lead to full phase out of the substances within the target period will tend to result in very high numbers or infinite. This is in particular the case for Ozone Depletion. In these cases the weighting factors are indicated by the sign for infinity (). Table 11-1 summarises the calculated new weighting factors for the period 1994-2004 and the similar weighting factors calculated in the EDIP study for the period 1990-2000. Table 11-1
It should be emphasised that there is not much regulation on global level of the impact categories addressed in EDIP, except for global warming, ozone depletion and to a limited extent - photochemical ozone. Calculation of a weighting factor thus requires a close examination of reduction targets in all regions of the World - a task that is outside the scope of the present study. Accordingly, global weighting factors have only been calculated for the impact categories that are global in their scale. Furthermore, it should be mentioned that EU-regulation of substances that contribute to, in particular the ecotoxicity and human toxicity impact categories, is very rudimentary. The reason for this is that EU regulation can be seen as supplementary to national regulations. A precise weighting factor for EU thus requires that all national regulations and reduction targets are examined in sufficient detail. It has been tried to obtain this information from the national ministries of environment, but only very scattered information was found. The EU weighting factors for human toxicity and ecotoxicity are therefore most probably underestimated and should be used with some reservations. 11.2 Definition of "weighting" proceduresAccording to the ISO standard, ISO 14042 on Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) "weighting" is defined in the following way (ISO 2000): "Weighting is conversion of indicator results or normalised results by using numerical factors. Weighting is an optional element with two possible procedures:
The application and use of weighting methods shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA study and be fully transparent. Different people, organisations and societies may have different values; therefore it is possible that different parties will reach different weighting results based on the same indicator results. In the LCA study it may be desirable to use different weighting methods and to conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the consequences on the life cycle impact assessment results of different value-choices and weighting methods. All weighting methods and operations used shall be documented to provide transparency. Data and Life Cycle Impact Assessment results reached prior to weighting should be made available together with the weighting results. This ensures that:
11.3 Scope of weighting procedureBefore choosing a weighting method and procedure to be applied for a certain LCA, it is important to take a number of different aspects into consideration:
11.4 Different weighting methodsA number of different methods have been discussed at national and international level, e.g.:
These methods have been developed to different levels and have different advantages and disadvantages. In this project - as in the Original EDIP97 - it has been decided to apply a weighting method based on "political targets and goals" established for the selected impact categories. This is due to the relatively advanced state of the method and the availability of sufficient and reliable data and information for most impact categories. For all impact categories, regardless of their geographical scale, the weighting factors are based on politically determined reduction targets in Denmark, the EU or at the global level. These reduction targets are taken as an expression of the importance assigned to the impact category in those parts of the world. If important stakeholders for a study come from different parts of the world and it can be expected that they will have environmental priorities that differ significantly from the priorities expressed through these reduction targets, it may be relevant to derive weighting factors more in line with these priorities e.g. by basing them on political reduction targets in the important stakeholders' part of the world. 11.4.1 Weighting procedure based on political goalsThe procedure for applying and using weighting in this project consist of the following steps:
In this project 1994 has been chosen as "reference year" and 2004 as "target year". The impact potential is either regulated directly by the political priorities through legislation, actions plans etc. or indirectly through regulation of the emission of the substances that determines the impact category. For each impact category x, the weighting factor (WF) is thus defined as follows: s248As the actual political targets for reducing certain pollutants in the different countries seldom are related to the target year selected for this project, it has been necessary to interpolate or extrapolate the data, so that the weighting factors for all impact categories relate to year 2004. 11.4.2 Environmental impact categoriesWeighting factors have been calculated for the following impact categories, corresponding to those categories for which normalisation references have been calculated in the previous chapters:
11.4.3 Geographic scopeIn this project it has been decided to establish weighting factors for the following geographical areas:
For Denmark the calculation of weighting factors will be an update of the existing weighting factors developed through the EDIP project (Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). Calculation of weighting factors for EU is a natural extension of the weighting factors for Denmark, which make the method valid for a larger market, e.g. Europe. It should be mentioned that weighting factors have not been calculated for each of the individual EU member states for the following reasons:
This means that the weighting factors developed for EU only represent a part of the environmental targets valid for the individual countries, namely that part for which common EU goals have been adopted. It has been suggested to make this method applicable at worldwide level. However, this is only possible for few impact categories, as worldwide regulation only exist for global warming, ozone depleting substances, and substances contributing to formation of photochemical ozone. 11.4.4 Calculation of weighting factorsIn the following the weighting factors for the individual impact categories have been calculated, together with brief explanation of the data on which the weighting factors are based. 11.5 Global warmingAt the global level the greenhouse gasses are regulated according to the Kyoto Protocol (UN 1997), except for those greenhouse gasses that are regulated through other international agreements. In principle the Kyoto Protocol regulates the following greenhouse gasses:
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) are global warming gasses as well, but as they are regulated according to the Montreal Protocol (UNEP 1987), they are not regulated by The Kyoto Protocol. However, as the ODS are contributing to the global warming the consumption of the substances – which is considered corresponding to the emission and thereby the impact on the global warming the equivalent data of the consumption is included where appropriate. Detailed information on the regulation of ODS's according to the Montreal Protocol is dealt with in section 11.6 At the regional level the greenhouse gasses are regulated according to different agreements. Some of the gasses, VOC's and CO, are regulated according to the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (UN-ECE 1979), while others are regulated according to EU resolutions. At the national level in Denmark the greenhouse gasses were earlier regulated according to various ministerial executive regulations and the governmental action plan, Energy 21 (Energistyrelsen 1996), but now (May 2002) as the Kyoto Protocol has been ratified by countries accounting in total for nearly 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990, which is the criteria for implementation of the Protocol, this will be the guiding regulation for Denmark as well. 11.5.1 Weighting factors for global warming at global levelAccording to the Kyoto Protocol (UN 1997) the Annex-1 parties (industrialised countries) shall reduce their anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions with at least 5% below 1990 level in the period 2008 to 2012. It is further stated that each of the Annex-1 parties shall have made demonstrable progress in achieving its commitments under the Protocol by 2005. For most of the Annex-1 parties, including EU as a whole, the demand is to reduce the emission by 8%. Some individual countries have targeted a reduction by up to 28%, others have to reduce emission by 6-7%, and some countries will even be allowed to increase their emission of greenhouse gasses up to a level of 10% more than the baseline level in 1990. According to the reporting by the parties to the Kyoto Protocol the "aggregated CO2 equivalent emissions, including CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6 emissions" from the Annex-1 parties in 1994 is reported to be 16.837 billion tonnes CO2-eq (UN/FCCC 2003, (On-line searchable database of GHG inventory data). With a reduction target for 2008-2012 (2010) on 5% (or 2.5% for the present reference period) the interpolated emission for 2004 should be 16.416 billion tonnes CO2-eq. Although USA and the Russian Federation have yet not ratified the Kyoto Protocol, their emissions of global warming gases are included in these calculations. The total emission of global warming gases (excluding ODS) for both Article 1- and Non Article 1 countries in 1994 has been estimated to 19.548 billion tonnes CO2-eq (UN/FCCC 2003). It should be noticed that the Kyoto Protocol until now only regulates the greenhouse gas emissions from industrialised countries and that there are different reduction targets for the individual industrialised countries at both regional and national level. The ozone depleting substances are divided into different chemical groups (CFC's, Halons, Methyl chloroform and HCFC's) that have different impact on the ozone layer as well as on the global warming. The regulation of the substances differs for the different groups of substances and for the two different categories of countries ("Article 5 countries", being the developing countries and the "Non Article 5 countries" being the industrialised countries, including countries under economic transition). In Table 11-2 below the background data for calculating the CO2-eq of the ozone depleting substances have been summarised. Table 11-2
Carbon tetrachloride is not included in the calculations as it is primarily used as feedstock for other ODS substances. Table 11-3 below summarises the calculations of global warming gases, ODS as well as non-ODS, divided on the Article 1 and Non Article 1 countries. Table 11-3
Based on the combined figures for CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6 and the ozone depleting substances accounted for in Table11-2 the weighting factor for global warming at global level will be:
11.5.2 Weighting factors for global warming at EU levelDuring the negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol the EU proposed more drastic reductions of the greenhouse gasses within its own geographical area than was finally agreed upon for the Annex-1 parties in general. Hence, in its implementation of the regulation of the greenhouse gasses the Environment Ministers Council of EU has agreed upon the following reduction targets for the individual EU countries (EU 1998):
As it appears from the table the five last mentioned countries are allowed to increase their CO2-eq emission. For the EU as a whole the reduction target will be 8% in 2010 based on the 1990 emission level. According to the reporting to the Kyoto Protocol the "aggregated CO2 equivalent emissions" in 1994 the emission is reported to 3.972 billion tonnes CO2-eq (UN/FCCC 2003). With a reduction target for 2008-2012 (2010) on 8% (4% for the reference period) the interpolated emission for 2004 should be about 3.813 billion tonnes CO2-eq. Among the ozone depleting substances only HCFC and methyl chloroform is relevant for EU. The remaining groups of ozone depleting substances are supposed to be phased out so quickly that they are not included in the calculation. In Table 11-4 below the background data for calculating the CO2-eq of the global warming and the ozone depleting substances have been summarised. Table 11-4
Based on these figures the weighting factor for GWP at EU level will be:
This is a general weighting factor for EU as whole, but as it appears from the table above different targets have been set for the individual countries. 11.5.3 Weighting factors for global warming for DenmarkAs mentioned earlier, the EDIP97 weighting factors for all impact categories are based on political reduction targets for Denmark or Europe regardless the geographical scale of the impact. The Danish regulation of greenhouse gasses is based on the EU regulation. According to the Kyoto Protocol and the internal EU agreement the aggregated CO2 emission should be reduced with 21% by 2010, based on 1990 emission level. According to the reporting to the Kyoto Protocol the "aggregated CO2 equivalent emissions" in 1994 the emission is reported to 80.152 million tonnes CO2-eq (UN/FCCC 1998). With a reduction target for 2008-2012 (2010) on 21% the interpolated emission for 2004 should be about 71.736 million tonnes CO2-eq. According to the Danish rules for ODS phase out all the ODS should be fully phased out before 2004. There are special rules for the HFCs, which are supposed to be phased out by 2007. The calculation of the global warming potential of the ODS and HFCs appear from Table 2-1 below. Table 11-5.
Based on these figures the weighting factor for global warming for Denmark will be:
It should be emphasised that ozone depleting substances should have been included in the above calculation, just like for the other geographical areas. However, as the ozone depleting substances have been phased out in Denmark during the target period, it would add an infinitive value to the above weighting factor, totally overruling the result of the phasing out of green house gases. Hence, it has not been included in these calculations. 11.5.4 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-6 summarises the calculated weighting factors for the different groups of GWP, divided on three geographical areas. The table also includes the general GWP weighting factors for Denmark, developed through the EDIP project. Table 11-6
As it appears the weighting factors for Global Warming are relatively low, indicating a long-term phase down of the emissions of green house gases. The relatively lower WF for Denmark in the period 1994-2004, compared to the one calculated for 1990-2000, is due to the fact that ODS are not included in the new WF which was the case in the earlier calculations (EDIP, 1990-2000). This impact category includes relatively few substances, and the calculation of the emission of the dominating substances is well documented. Furthermore, the impact is relatively well researched. Hence, the uncertainty of the calculated weighting factors must be considered as limited compared to some of the other weighting factors. 11.6 Stratospheric ozone depletionThe depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer is regulated through reducing the production and consumption of the ozone depleting substances (ODS). This means that the regulation works indirectly in relation to the actual effect. For many of the applications of ODS there will be a considerable time span between the "production/consumption" of the substances, the emission of the substances to the atmosphere as well as between the emission and the actual impact on the ozone layer. A time span on 10-20 years between consumption and impact is not unusual. However, it is not possible to regulate the ozone depletion directly, so this indirect regulation is the only practical option. Almost all countries in the world have become parties of the Montreal Protocol (UNEP 1987), which is the international agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. Those countries which have not become parties to the Montreal Protocol are few and represent only a very limited consumption of ODS. This means that the regulation prescribed by the Montreal Protocol represent the basic regulation to phase out ODS in most countries. The regulation in the Montreal Protocol is divided on two different categories of countries:
Apart from the overall regulation based on The Montreal Protocol a number of countries have adopted their own regulations, which are stricter than the Montreal Protocol. Especially the industrialised countries have adopted stricter regulation, while the east and central European as well as most developing countries have adopted a regulation close to the one prescribed in the Montreal Protocol. In the EU a general regulation has been adopted which has to be followed by the 15 members states, although these countries can adopt their own stricter regulation. 11.6.1 Weighting factors for Ozone Depletion for DenmarkDenmark has adopted its own regulation, which is stricter than the EU regulation. The Danish regulation consists of the following steps (Miljøstyrelsen 1999):
As it appears from the above list most of the ODS should have been phased out by now, and this is also more or less the case. Some substances are still in use, and recycling is allowed under certain conditions. The use of HCFC's is allowed until 2002, and hence by 2004, they have to be fully phased out. This means that by 2004 all substances controlled according to the Montreal Protocol have to be phased out in Denmark. Hence, the weighting factors for the ozone depleting substances, calculated strictly in line with the formula, will be infinite:
An infinite weighting factor will obviously also cause the weighted result to become infinite. This is a strong signal that the product system being investigated contributes to an environmental impact where Danish regulation actually aims at giving no contribution and that some kind of action is strongly requested. The global weighting factor, which is generally recommended for ozone depletion, may give a more realistic view of the importance with the current situation for phasing-out of ozone depleting substances. The difference, however, underlines the importance of using more than one weighting factor in a sensitivity analysis. 11.6.2 Weighting factors for Ozone Depletion at EU levelThe overall regulation of ODS in EU is formulated in the Council Regulation (EC) No 3093/94 of 15 December 1994 on substances that deplete the ozone layer (Hansen, 1997). The phase out schedule for the various controlled substances can be summarised as follows:
On 21 December 1998 the Environment Ministers Council of EU reached political agreement on a proposal forwarded by the Commission to tighten the phase out schedule for some of the ODS's (EU 1994):
If the proposed amendment of the EU regulation on ODS is finally adopted almost all ODS will be phased out before 2004, and the weighting factor will be infinite (). However, if the previously mentioned phase out plan is applied, the WF can be calculated as follows. The ozone depleting potential for emitted HCFCs in EU 15 in 1991 can be estimated to 2,850 tonnes ODP, based on emission data for 1989 (1,900 tonnes ODP) and 1992 (3,330 tonnes ODP). The emission in 1994 is reported to be 5,577 tonnes ODP (UNEP, 1999). For 1995 the emission is reported to 7,631 tonnes ODP. A 35%'s reduction in the 1991 consumption would lead to a maximum emission in 2005 of 1,853 tonnes ODP. By interpolating the emission in 2004 should not exceed 2,264 tonnes ODP. Based on these figures the weighting factor for ODS for EU will be:
11.6.3 Weighting factors for Ozone Depletion at global level for industrialised countriesAs mentioned above, the Montreal Protocol represents the regulation of ODS at global level. The regulation is divided into two categories of countries, industrialised countries (called Non-Article 5 countries in the following) and developing countries (called Article 5 countries in the following). The regulation for Non-Article 5 countries can be summarised as follows (UNEP 1987):
As it appears from the above list all the controlled ODS's, except HCFC's, will be phased out before 2004. This is similar to the regulation at Danish and EU level. 11.6.3.1 Weighting factor based on ODSs The calculation of the weighting factor for ozone depletion is based on the actual consumption of all ODS's in 1994 and the allowed consumption in 2004 that according to the regulation should not exceed 65% of the 1989 consumption of HCFC. The 1989 consumption of HCFC is reported to 11,978 ODP tonnes, and the 1994 consumption of all ODS for the whole world is estimated to 490,099 ODP tonnes of (UNEP, 2002). According to the Montreal Protocol the HCFC consumption should in 2004 not exceed 7,786 ODP tonnes. Based on these figures the weighting factor for ozone depletion for Non-Article 5 countries will be:
11.6.4 Weighting factors for Ozone Depletion at global level for non-industrialised countriesThe phase out scheme for Article 5 countries can be summarised as follows (UNEP 1987):
As it appears from the above none of the ODS's will be fully phased out in the Article 5 countries by 2004. Some reduction targets have been established for most of the substances for this or the following year. The base line year for the first three mentioned groups of substances is set to 1996, for which data is available. There are no data available for the baseline year for the other substances. However, these substances are not that relevant, except HCFC's, as the consumption of them is limited. In the following the data for each of the ODS groups are presented, and in the end of the section these data are summarised and weighting factors are calculated. 11.6.4.1 CFC's The 1996 consumption of CFC's for Article 5 countries is estimated to 149,401 ODP tonnes (UNEP, 2002). The 2005 consumption should according to the Montreal Protocol be reduced to 74,700 ODP tonnes. 11.6.4.2 Halons Similarly, the 1996 consumption of halons is estimated to 43,410 ODP tonnes (UNEP, 2002). The 2005 consumption should according to the Montreal Protocol be reduced to 21,705 ODP tonnes. 11.6.4.3 Methyl bromide The 1995 and 1998 consumption of methyl bromide for Article 5 countries is estimated to 8,578 ODP tonnes, respectively 10,564 ODP tonnes (UNEP, 2002). The 2005 consumption should according to the Montreal Protocol be reduced to 7,657 ODP tonnes. 11.6.4.4 HCFC's The reduction target for HCFC's in the Article 5 countries need to be measured in relation to the full phase out year 2040, as no earlier target can be determined. This means that a possible HCFC consumption for 2004 has to be interpolated based on the 1994 consumption and the full phase out in 2040. According to the UNEP statistics (UNEP, 2002) the 1994 HCFC's consumption was 4,348 ODP tonnes. It should be mentioned that this statistics is based on reporting from the parties to the Montreal Protocol, and that for 1994 obviously there is a considerable lack of data. It is furthermore obvious that the HCFC consumption will increase in the following years. However, if the presented figures are taken for granted the 2004 consumption will be around 3,391 ODP tonnes. 11.6.4.5 Carbon tetrachloride The reduction target for carbon tetrachloride in the Article 5 countries is measured for 2005, for which the intermediate target is to reduce the 1999 consumption with 85%. According to the UNEP statistics (UNEP, 2002) the 1999 carbon tetrachloride consumption was 22,099 ODP tonnes. The target consumption in 2004 will thus be 3,315 ODP tonnes 11.6.4.6 1,1,1-trichloroethane The reduction target for 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the Article 5 countries is measured in relation to the intermediate target, i.e. a 30% reduction in 2005 in relation to the 1999 consumption. The 1994 and 1999 consumption was 3,510 and 1,951 ODP tonnes, respectively (UNEP, 2002), and accordingly the target consumption for 2002/2005 is calculated to 1,366 ODP tonnes. Table 11-7
Based on the above figures, the weighting factor for ozone depletion for Article 5 countries can be calculated as:
11.6.5 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-8 below summarises the calculated weighting factors for ozone depletion, divided into four geographical areas. The table also includes the ODP weighting factors for Denmark developed through the EDIP project. Table 11-8
As it can be seen the weighting factors for ODS are in general high as was the case in the earlier studies. The WF for Denmark is now estimated to be infinite, because all ODS have to be phased out within the period 1994-2004. The WF for EU 15 is moderate, because most of the ODS already are phased out in 1994, and EU will still be allowed to emit some ODS by 2004. The WF for industrialised countries is relatively high because they in total still had a high emission of ODS in 1994, while being supposed to phase out most of the emission before 2004. The WF for developing countries is low because they have been allowed to phase out the ODS over a longer period. The differences in ODP weighting factors for different regions will often be reflected in the final results in an LCA if a sensitivity analysis is applied. As it is not possible in the current EDIP methodology to use different and region-specific weighting factors in the same calculations, such a sensitivity analysis can show the weight that are put on emissions of ozone depleting substances in specific regions, allowing a better interpretation. Identification of ozone depleting substances in any LCA should, however, always be followed by considerations on how they can be avoided. The data on consumption of ODS is relatively well documented (based on reporting from the individual countries and cross examined with total production figures), and the uncertainty connected with the weighting factors for this impact category must be considered as limited. 11.7 Photochemical ozone creation (POC)The principal precursors of tropospheric ozone are:
VOC are regulated at regional level, according to the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (UN-ECE 1979). In some countries these substances are also regulated at national level. CH4 is regulated as greenhouse gas at both global and regional (EU) level, but not yet at national level in Denmark (1999). CO is regulated at point sources, but it is not regulated as POCP-gas. Hence, there are no limits for total emission of CO at neither national, nor regional and global level. 11.7.1 Weighting factors for Photochemical Ozone Creation at global levelThe only POC gas that is regulated at global level is CH4. According to the Kyoto Protocol the emission of green house gases should be reduced by 5% in 2008-2012, based on the 1990 emission level. Reduction levels for the different gases are not specified further, so in the following calculation it is assumed that CH4 has to follow the general rule. The emission of CH4 in 1990 is estimated to 351 million tonnes. For 1994 the emission is reported to 375 million tonnes, equal to 2.625 million tonnes C2H4-equivalents. According to the regulation the emission in 2010 should not exceed 333 million tonnes. By interpolating the emission in 2004 should not exceed 349 million tonnes, equal to 2.443 million tonnes C2H4-equivalents. According to the technical report (Stranddorf, 2003), the World-wide emissions of gases with a photochemical ozone creating potential (POCP) equalled 76.8 million tonnes C2H4-equivalents in 1994. Except for the reduction in emissions of CH4 outlined above, the emissions are assumed to be the same in 2004. Based on these figures the weighting factor for POCP at global level will be:
11.7.2 Weighting factors for POCP at regional levelAt the regional level the principal POCP substances are regulated according to the protocols under the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (UN-ECE 1979). Emission of nmVOC is regulated according to the Geneva Protocol (UN-ECE, 1991) that was adopted in 1991. According to the Protocol the emission of VOCs should be reduced with 30% in 1999, with a year between 1984 and 1990 as a base. As mentioned earlier, CH4 is regulated according to the Kyoto Protocol with 5% over the period 1990-2010. CO is neither regulated at national nor regional level. The data on which the calculation of the WF for POCP is based appears from Table 11-9 below. Table 11-9.
Based on these figures the weighting factor for photochemical ozone formation for EU-15 will be:
11.7.3 Weighting factors for POCP for DenmarkThe Danish regulation concerning photochemical ozone formation is following the regional regulation. This means that nmVOC is following the Geneva Protocol and CH4 the Kyoto Protocol. The emission of CO is not regulated at national level. The weighting factor for POCP at national Danish level can then be calculated as follows shown in Table 11-10. Table 11-10
Based on these figures the weighting factor for photochemical ozone formation for Denmark will be:
11.7.4 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-11 summarises the weighting factors calculated for photochemical ozone formation for the three geographical areas, and compares them to the previously developed weighting factors in the EDIP project. Table 11-11
As it appears from the table, the weighting factor for POCP for Denmark is somewhat higher than it was in the EDIP project. This is due to the fact that the reduction targets for CH4 according to the Kyoto Protocol is included in these calculation, which was not the case for the original EDIP. The regulation of the POPC at global level is only determined by the regulation of CH4 through the Kyoto Protocol, and this regulation is not so strict as the other regulation. The uncertainty connected with the calculation of the weighting factors for POCP may be higher than that of Global Warming and Ozone Depletion. The reason for this is that the regulation of the involved substances refers to different international agreements and that it is difficult to estimate the emission data precisely. 11.8 AcidificationAcidification is primarily a regional environmental problem that is regulated both at local, national and regional level. The overall reduction of substances that lead to acidification is based on the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) (UN-ECE 1979), which is ratified by most of the countries in Europe and North America. The regulation of acidification is focusing on two groups of substances, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) each regulated according to their own protocols. NH3 is not regulated as an air pollutant but as a water pollutant. 11.8.1 Weighting factors for acidification at global levelThere is no binding regulation at global level, but as the primary industrial nations have adopted the LRTAP Convention, a weighting factor based on this can to a certain degree be applied as global weighting factor. However, this will require a closer investigation of how the LRTAP convention is implemented in the various regions, and that is not done in this study. 11.8.2 Weighting factors for acidification at EU levelSO2 was one of the first substances to be regulated at international level. This was done through the LRTAP Convention which later on was replaced by the so-called the Helsinki Protocol (Helsinki Commission 1974) regulating the emission of SO2 until 1993. The Helsinki Protocol was replaced in 1994 by the Oslo Protocol, or the Second Sulphur Protocol (UN-ECE 1994). According to this protocol the parties have agreed to reduce their sulphur emissions in accordance with the plan shown in Table 11-12. The baseline year is 1980. Table 11-12
The following calculation of weighting factor is based on the reduction targets for 2005. For those countries, which only have set targets for 2000, these reduction figures are used instead. Where emission figures are missing for the reference year (1994), figures for a year earlier are used instead. Based on the figures from the UN-ECE reports (UN-ECE 1994) the total 1994 emission of SO2 in the countries is 12,105 kilotonnes SO2. The calculated emission for 2004 should according to the reduction targets be 8,04 kilotonnes SO2 The earlier regulation of NOx, the Sofia Protocol (UN-ECE 1988a), will not effect the weighting factor for this project, as the targets have been reached several years ago. However, the Sofia Protocol was in 1988 supplemented by a declaration (UN-ECE 1988b) adopted by 12 European countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Finland, France, Italy, Liechtenstein, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland). The reduction target of the declaration is formulated as follows "the signatories will implement a reduction of national annual nitrogen oxide emission in the order of 30% as soon as possible and at the latest by 1998, using the level of any year between 1980 and 1986 as a basis". For the EU countries the declaration will result in reductions shown in Table 11-13. In the calculation 1983 has been used as basis for the calculations for all the countries. Table 11-13
The above data diverts a bit from those used for the calculations in the normalisation chapters. However, as the above data are those used in relation to the negotiation of the regulation, they are kept here for the calculation of the weighting factor. For the remaining six countries that is not regulated with respect to NOx the following total emission for the reference year and the target year are applied (derived from the calculation of the normalisation references): 1380 kt SO2-eq. The emission of NOx for EU-15 in 1994 is thus calculated to 6895 kt SO2-eq and for 2004 5561 kt SO2-eq. There exist no regional regulation of the third acidifying component, ammonia (NH3), so the emission figure remain the same in the reference year as in the target year: 6640 kt SO2-eq. The figures for acidification for EU-15 are summarised in Table 11-14 below. Table 11-14
Based on these figures the weighting factor for acidification for EU-15 will be:
A new regulation, integrating all the primary acidifying substances, is under way but no specific targets have been established so far. 11.8.3 Weighting factors for acidification for DenmarkWith regard to acidification Denmark is following the Protocols under the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution. According to the Oslo Protocol (UN-ECE 1994) Denmark has to reduce the SO2 emission with 80% in 2000 relative to the 1980 emission. The 1980 and the 1994 SO2 emissions were 451,000 tonnes and 158,000 tonnes. The 2000 emission thus has to be 90,200 tonnes SO2. As there have not been established new targets, the level in 2004 is considered to be equal to the one in 2000. According to a UN-ECE Declaration on NOx, adopted under the Sofia Protocol, the Danish emission of NOx has to be reduced with 30% in 1998 relative to the 1983 emission (or rather a year between 1980-1986). The 1983 and the 1994 NOx emissions has been registered to 261,000 tonnes and 276,000 tonnes. The 1998 emission thus has to be 182,700 tonnes NOx. As there have not been established new targets, the level in 2004 is considered to be equal to the one in 1998. Converted into SO2 equivalents the NOx emission in 1994 and 2004 will be 193,200, respectively 127,900 tonnes SO2-eq. Airborne ammonia (NH3), which primarily originates in the agricultural sector, contributes to the acidification as well. It not regulated, but its contribution to acidification has to be included in the calculations. It is estimated that the annual emission amounts to about 93 600 tonnes of nitrogen (Andersen, et al 1999). Converted into SO2-eq the emission will be 176 000 tonnes per year (equivalency factor is 1.88 (EDIP 97)). The figures for acidification for Denmark is summarised in Table 11-15 below. Table 11-15
Based on these figures the weighting factor for acidification will be:
11.8.4 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-16 summarises the weighting factors calculated for acidification for the three geographical areas, and compares them to the previously developed weighting factors in the EDIP project. Table 11-16
As it appears the WF for Denmark in this study is more or less the same as the one calculated in the EDIP study, while the WF for EU is somewhat lower. It should be emphasised, however, that the target year differs between the various countries within EU. The uncertainty connected with the calculation of the weighting factors for acidification is judged to be at the same level as that of Global Warming and Ozone Depletion. The reason for this is that the regulation of the involved substances is relative clear and that the emission data is relatively well documented. It is however also mentioned here that the target year for reduction for some countries is 2000 instead of 2004, adding a minor uncertainty to the weighting factor. 11.9 Nutrient enrichmentThere exist both regional (EU) and national regulation of some of the substances that result in nutrient enrichment, primarily N containing substances. The calculation of the weighting factors is based on reduction targets for the consumption and use of the two plant nutrients, N and P. EDIP 97 includes calculations of WFs for both N and P as well as an aggregated WF for N and P. However, as there is no current regulation of P in Denmark anymore and there have never been for EU, no new WF including P has been calculated in this study. 11.9.1 Weighting factors for nutrient enrichment for DenmarkThe Danish emission of N and P to the water environment has primarily been regulated through the Water Environment Action Plans. The first plan, which established reduction targets for three sectors, covers in principle all emissions to the water environment, except precipitation from the air. As the goals of the first Water Environment Action plan were not met, a second Action Plan (Miljøstyrelsen, 1998) was adopted in 1998 extending the period for reaching the goals. The reduction targets are based on the data from the NPO Study, which contains the baseline data for the emission of N and P. The new target year is 2003. In Table 11-17 the reduction targets established through the Action Plans are summarised. Table 11-17
The only target, which is still relevant, is the reduction of the emission of N from the agriculture. The target on reduction of the emission of P from the agriculture has not been achieved, and the target has now been given up. So far, there has been no reduction target for the emission of NH3 but such a target is under way. As the reduction target for N from the agriculture was not achieved during the first action plan the emission level is considered to be the same in 1994, 260,000 tonnes N. In 2004 the emission has to be reduced to 160,000 tonnes N, as this is target already for 2003. The reduction targets for airborne NOx is, as mentioned under Acidification, section 11.8, 30% in 1998, based on the emission level in 1983. As there have not been established new reduction targets for airborne NOx, the 30% will also be valid for 2004. This means that the NOx emissions in the reference and targets years are 261,000 tonnes NOx (1994) and 182,700 tonnes NOx (2004). Airborne ammonia (NH3), contributes to the nutrient enrichment as well, and has to be included in the calculations. It is assumed that the emission is more or less constant and that the annual emission amounts to about 93,000 tonnes of nitrogen (Andersen, et al 1999). The emission of P is assumed to be the same in both reference and the target year, and amounts to a total of 15,000 tonnes P per year. Converted into NO3-eq the amount will be 480,450 tonnes NO3-eq. The above data and conversion of them into NO3--eq is shown in Table 11-18 below (conversion factors as in EDIP). Table 11-18
Based on the above figures the weighting factor for nutrient enrichment with N-containing substances for Denmark will be:
The weighting factor for nutrient enrichment with P-containing substances for Denmark can be estimated to:
The aggregated weighting factor for nutrient enrichment for Denmark will be:
11.9.2 Weighting factors for nutrient enrichment at EU levelWithin EU nutrient enrichment is regulated mainly through three directives:
According to the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (EU 1991a) the discharge of P via urban waste water treatment plants to "sensitive areas" shall be reduced by minimum 80% or concentration of Total P should be kept within 2 mg/l for 10 000 - 100 000 p.e. (person equivalents) plants and within 1 mg/l for plants over 100 000 p.e. Similarly, Total N has to be reduced with minimum 70-80%, or concentrations of 15 mg/l for 10 000 – 100 000 p.e. plants and 10 mg/l for plants over 100 000 p.e. There are no exact reduction targets for discharge of treated wastewater to normal and less sensitive areas. The discharge of wastewater is divided on the three categories of recipients, see Table 11-19. Table 11-19
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive was originally adopted in 1991, and has at a later stage been revised to the above mentioned version. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to provide baseline data, which the targets can be related to, so it has not been possible to include emission from urban areas in the calculation of weighting factors. According to the Nitrates Directive (EU 1991b), adopted in 1991, the distribution of nitrogen containing manure on agricultural land should be reduced within certain time limits. In 1998 up to 210 kg N can be distributed per hectare, and in 2002 the limit is 170 kg N per hectare. The Directive does not include further reduction of the distribution of nitrogen. Hence, it is stipulated that the limit on 170 kg N per hectare for 2002 is also valid for 2004. There are no limits for phosphorous. The IPPC Directive (EU 1996) set up procedures for regulating the emission and effluents from industries, but does not include specific values for emission of N and P to waterways. Through extrapolation the reference amount of N in 1994 is 237 kg N per hectare. Based on these assumptions the weighting factor for N will be:
It should be emphasised that this weighting factor is based on only one basic factor in the creation of nutrient enrichment. Hence, the scope of the estimation of the weighting factor is relatively narrow in relation to the biological mechanism of nutrient enrichment. Due to the fact that phosphorous is not regulated at EU-level the weighting factor for P is one: WFEutroP, EU = 1.0 If it is assumed that the emission of the nutrient enrichment substances is linear to the use of the N and P as well as the air emissions an aggregated weighting factor can be calculated as follows. In connection with the calculation of the normalisation references the following emissions for 1994 have been estimated as it appears from Table 11-20 below. Table 11-20.
Based on these assumptions the aggregated weighting factor for nutrient enrichment with N and P will be:
11.9.3 Weighting factors for nutrient enrichment at global levelThere are no initiatives to establish reduction targets for nutrient enrichment substances at global level. Hence, it has not been tried to develop weighting factors for nutrient enrichment at this level. 11.9.4 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-21 summarises the weighting factors calculated for nutrient enrichment for the two geographical areas, and compares them to the previously developed weighting factors in the EDIP project. Table 11-21
The uncertainty connected with the calculation of the weighting factors for nutrient enrichment is judged to be at a higher level than that of Global Warming and Ozone Depletion. The reason for this is that the regulation of the involved substances only covers part of the impact category and that the impact mechanism and the emission data is less well documented. 11.10 EcotoxicityThe overall impact category ecotoxicity is a relatively complex impact category, including a broad range of substances and recipients. In this project it has been decided to focus on the substances that have been identified as the most important for three specific "sub"-impact categories, as mentioned in the section Normalisation References for the Impact Category Ecotoxicity. The groups of substances and the "sub"-impact categories are summarised in Table 11-22. Table 11-22
The substances mentioned in Table11-22 is applied for both Denmark and EU, except "Oil emission", which is assumed relevant only at EU level. 11.10.1 Weighting factors for ecotoxicity for Denmark11.10.1.1 Organic substances and metals to water The emission of organic substances and metals to water, which in this context means marine areas, is primarily regulated through two international conventions, the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea (The Helsinki Convention) (Helsinki Commission 1974) and the OSPAR Convention for the North Atlantic Oceans (OSPAR Commission 1992), including the North Sea. The OSPAR Convention replaces the earlier adopted Oslo and the Paris conventions. According to the OSPAR Convention the emission of hazardous substances to the oceans should be reduced with 50% in relation to the emissions in 1985. The list of substances includes those, which are mentioned under the previous sections on Normalisation References for Ecotoxicity, e.g. metals, organics, pesticides and organotin compounds. The target year was earlier 1995, but has now been prolonged to 2000. Initiatives have been taken to formulate a full stop for emission of selected substances before 2020. However, this initiative is still under consideration, so no specific target can be established by now. Therefore, the target for 2004 in this context is considered as being 50% of the 1985 emissions, which corresponds to a reduction of about 20% from 1994 to 2004. 11.10.1.2 Pesticides to soil The outlet of pesticides to the soil is primarily regulated through the Action Plan for Reduction of the Consumption of Pesticides, 1986 (Miljøstyrelsen 1986). According to this action plan the consumption should be reduced with 25% in relation to the average annual consumption in the years 1981-85. Later on it has been decided to reduce the consumption with 25% more by 1997. A further reduction, or even a full phase out of the use of pesticides, is under consideration in the Committee for Evaluation of Phasing Out the Use of Pesticides. The recommendation of this Committee has not been discussed by the political institutions, so it is too early to take it for granted that there will be a full or almost full phase out of pesticides. However, it seems evident that a decision on further reduction will take place within the coming years. Therefore, the calculation of the reduction targets for pesticides will be based on the assumption that the current trend in the phasing out will continue anyway until 2004. This means that the consumption of pesticides should be reduced with 75% in 2004 in relation to the consumption in 1983, which correspond to an average annual reduction of about 3.57% in the period, or 36% in the period from 1994 to 2004. 11.10.1.3 Organic substances and metals in sludge The outlet of organic substances and metals to the soil, via sludge from wastewater treatment plants, is regulated according to the executive regulation for the Application of Waste Products for Agricultural Purposes, issued 1996 (Miljø- og Energiministeriet 1996). According to this executive regulation the content of one heavy metal and some organic substances (detergents) has to be reduced within a given period, see Table 11-23 below. Table 11-23
As it appears from Table 11-23 the threshold limit value for cadmium has to be reduced with 50% within four years. As there are no new initiatives under way these values will for the time being also be relevant for 2004. For the organic substances the content has to be reduced also with 50% within the period from 1997 to 2000, except for NPE (nonylphenol ethoxylates), which will be reduced with 80% over the same period. The threshold limit values for other regulated heavy metals (mercury, lead and nickel) are not reduced. Emission of oil and products based on mineral oil is regulated also through the Helsinki and the OSPAR conventions. According to these conventions the emissions has to be reduced with 50%. 11.10.1.4 Air to water and soil Deposition from air to water and soil involves, according to the section on Human Toxicity in chapter on Normalisation references , the following substances:
The dominating source of airborne lead has been organic lead compounds in petrol. However, as leaded petrol has been phased out a number of years ago, it is not relevant for this project. The source of airborne mercury originates primarily from power generation, waste incineration, sludge and land filling. The emission of mercury is indirectly regulated through the use of mercury for various purposes. According to an executive regulation on marketing and export of mercury and mercury containing products (Miljø- og Energiministeriet 1998), the use of mercury thermometers for certain applications is prohibited from 30 June 2004 and other thermometers from 31 December 1999. For a long range of other applications the use of mercury will still be allowed. It is estimated that the regulated applications accounts for about 20% of the total use, whereas the regulation corresponds to a reduction of the present use with about 20% by 2004. Arsenic, cadmium and chromium do not become airborne to the same extent as mercury, so the regulation of these substances can not be considered as relevant for the deposition of the substances. Hence, it is not possible to establish reduction targets for these substances. The PAH originates from a long range of different sources, both stationary and mobile, but typically combustion processes. PAH is regulated as threshold limit values from some of the sources, but there are no overall national reduction targets. This is the same for particulate matter. Dioxin primarily originates from combustion, and especially solid waste incineration. Denmark had earlier its own reduction target for solid waste incineration, but it has now been replaced by a general EU reduction target on 90% of the emission by 2005, based on the 1985 emission level (EU 1992). This target corresponds to a reduction on 45% from 1994 to 2004. Based on the figures for ecotoxicity potentials presented in the sections on Ecotoxicity, the weighted reduction target for the substances will be 10% from 1994 to 2004. It should be emphasised that only the reduction target for mercury contributes to this weighted reduction target. 11.10.1.5 Anti-fouling to water The outlet of anti-fouling substances to the water environment is not yet regulated as such (as of March 1999), but the Minister of Environment and Energy has proposed a executive regulation prohibiting the use of pesticide containing anti-fouling paint for leisure boats by 2003. According to a survey of the consumption of anti-fouling substances (tributyltin, TBT, trade name Diuren) in Denmark, conducted by the Danish EPA, the annual consumption of anti-fouling substances (active substance) is 850-1700 tonnes (1997). There is no exact figure for the consumption of these substances for large ships, which move much abroad and therefore release their anti-fouling treatment abroad. However, if it is assumed that half of the anti-fouling paint is used for leisure boats this means a reduction target on 50% by 2003 and also by 2004, in case there will not be established reduction targets for other ships. Based on the above assumptions the reduction from 1994 to 2004 will be 50%. 11.10.1.6 Weighting factors Based on the above assumptions the following weighting factors can be calculated for ecotoxicity for Denmark, see Table 11-24 below. Table 11-24
Table 11-25
Table 11-26
11.10.2 Weighting factors for ecotoxicity at EU levelThis section has been organised in the same way as the above section for Denmark. 11.10.2.1 Organic substances and metals to water For EU as a whole the emission of organic substances and metals to water, which in this context means marine areas, are primarily regulated through the Helsinki Convention and The OSPAR Convention, as most of the EU coastline is linked to the North Atlantic and Baltic oceans. No regulation covering the relevant substances for the Mediterranean Sea has been identified. Hence, the above regulation has been applied for this sea as well. According to these conventions the discharge of hazardous substances to the oceans should be reduced with 50% in relation to the emissions in 1985. The list of substances includes those, which are mentioned under sections on Normalisation References for Ecotoxicity, e.g. metals, organics, pesticides and organotin compounds. The target year was earlier 1995, but has now been prolonged to 2000. Therefore, the target for 2004 in this context is considered as being 50% of the 1985 emissions which corresponds to a reduction of about 20% from 1994 to 2004. 11.10.2.2 Pesticides to soil There are no regulations of the amounts of pesticides at EU level. 11.10.2.3 Organic substances and metals in sludge The outlet of organic substances and metals to the soil, via sludge from wastewater treatment plants, is regulated through the Council Resolution 86/278/EEC. However, this regulation does not provide a basis for establishing an overall reduction target for these substances at EU level. 11.10.2.4 Oil to water Emission of oil and products based on mineral oil is regulated also through the Helsinki and the OSPAR conventions. According to these conventions the emissions has to be reduced with 50%. 11.10.2.5 Air to water and soil There is no regulation at EU level that lead to reduction targets for heavy metals and organic substances above, except dioxins. According to the EU regulation the reduction target is to reduce the emission with 90% of the 1985 emission by 2005 (EU 1992). This target corresponds to a reduction on 45% from 1994 to 2004. 11.10.2.6 Anti-fouling to water There are no regulations of anti-fouling substances at EU level. 11.10.2.7 Weighting factors Based on the above assumptions the following weighting factors for EU can be calculated for ecotoxicity, see Table 11-27-Table 11-29 below. Table 11-27
Table 11-28
Table 11-29
11.10.3 Weighting factors for ecotoxicity at global levelThere is no basis for establishing weighting factors for ecotoxicity at global level, as there are no overall global reduction targets for the substances involved in the calculation of normalisation references for ecotoxicity. 11.10.4 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-30 summarises the weighting factors calculated for ecotoxicity for the two geographical areas, and compares them to the previously developed weighting factors in the EDIP project. Table 11-30
The uncertainty connected with the calculation of the weighting factors for ecotoxicity is much higher than that of Global Warming and Ozone Depletion. The reason for this is:
11.11 Human toxicity11.11.1Weighting factors for human toxicity for DenmarkAccording to the section on normalisation references for human toxicity in the previous chapter, the main substances contributing to the normalisation reference are those indicated in the table 1.27 below. All the other substances will be neglected in the further calculation of weighting factor for this impact category, because their contributions are so limited. The political reduction targets for the substances contributing to the normalisation references have been mentioned in the earlier sections. For lead, cadmium, PAH, particles and benzene the reduction targets appear from the section on Ecotoxicity above. The political targets for SO2 and NOx appear from the section on Acidification and the targets for nmVOC and CO appear from the section on Photochemical Ozone. The calculated Targeted Impact Potentials for the various substances in Table 11-31 below is based on the Impact Potentials for 1994, transferred from the Normalisation chapter. Table 11-31
Based on these assumptions and data the weighting factor for human toxicity for air in Denmark will be:
According to the section on normalisation references for human toxicity, the only substance contributing with more than 1% to the normalisation reference concerning human toxicity for water in Denmark is mercury, divided into 90% from air deposition and 9% from wastewater emission. As there are no political reduction targets for mercury deposition from air, the only relevant reduction in this respect is the one concerning emission to the waterways. This issue is regulated by the OSPAR convention, which prescribes a 50% reduction. This leads to the result as shown in Table 11-32. Table 11-32
Based on these assumptions and data the weighting factor for human toxicity for Denmark will be:
According to the section on normalisation references for human toxicity, the only substances contributing with more than 1% to the normalisation reference concerning soil in Denmark is mercury and arsenic deposited from air, arsenic, mercury and tetrachloroethylene from sludge. Threshold limit values have been established for various substances in sludge when used for agricultural purposes and for heavy metals in air, but there are no national targets for reducing the total load of the substances to soil. Hence, the weighting factors for human toxicity for soil will be one:
11.11.2 Weighting factors for human toxicity at EU levelThis section is organised in the same way as under the section on Human toxicity for Denmark. Concerning the legal basis for the reduction targets reference is made to the previous sections. For human toxicity for air at EU level the only regulated substances are those regulated as regional air pollutants, e.g. NOx, SO2 and nmVOC. The reduction targets are thus defined according to the OSPAR convention. The data on which the calculation of the weighting factor is based on appears from Table 11-33 below Table 11-33
Based on these assumptions and data the weighting factor for human toxicity for EU will be:
According to the chapter on normalisation reference for human toxicity the substances that contribute with more than 1% for water are: mercury from air deposition, mercury from water emission, dioxin from air deposition, lead from water emission, lead from air deposition and zinc from water emission. However, the only substances for which there have been established reduction targets are: metals from air deposition (20%) and metal from water emission (45%). Table 11-34
Based on these assumptions and data the weighting factor for human toxicity for water at EU level will be:
According to the chapter on normalisation reference for human toxicity the substances contributing with more than 1% for soil are: arsenic from air deposition, mercury from air deposition, arsenic from sludge, mercury from sludge, chromium from air deposition, lead from air deposition and cadmium from air deposition. However, the only substances for which reduction targets have been established are: metals from air deposition (20%) and metal from water emission (45%). Table 11-35
Based on these assumptions and data the weighting factor for human toxicity for EU will be:
11.11.3 Weighting factors for human toxicity at the Global levelThere is no basis for establishing weighting factors for human toxicity at global level, as there are no overall global reduction targets for the substances involved in the calculation of normalisation references for human toxicity. 11.11.4 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsTable 11-36 summarises the weighting factors calculated for human toxicity for the two geographical areas, and compares them to the previously developed weighting factors in the EDIP project. Table 11-36
The uncertainty connected with the calculation of the weighting factors for human toxicity is much higher than that of Global Warming and Ozone Depletion. The reason for this is:
11.12 Comparison of existing and new weighting factorsThe existing and new weighting factors are summarised in Table 11-37. Table 11-37
11.13 Methodological concerns11.13.1 Difference between impact category and emission targetsOne of the major methodological concerns in connection with establishment of weighting factors is the difference between the scope of the impact category and the regulation and the political targets on which the calculation of the weighting factors are based. Especially for the two impact categories, ecotoxicity and human toxicity there seem to be large differences in the scope of the regulation and the impact mechanisms. In the following some of the aspects connected to this issue is discussed. 11.13.2 Impact category versus substancesIn the case of the impact category, Global Warming, Denmark contributes to the global warming with CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs etc., but the regulation is only directed towards the emission of CO2. This means that in principle it is only possible to establish a weighting factor for CO2, but it has to cover the whole impact category. Weighting factors for CH4 and CFCs can be established through the regulation of these substances according to other impact categories, i.e. photo oxidant formation and the ozone layer protection. However, there is no regulation of N2O on which the calculation of weighting factors can be based. This may be a problem, if the LCA of a product has a major component of e.g. N2O. 11.13.3 Quick phase outFor some substances, e.g. CFCs, a relatively quick phase out has been decided, and obviously it also seems to take place. In such cases the weighting factors will be very high or even infinite. This is the case if the weighting factor is established through dividing the actual emission in 1994 with the supposed consumption of the substances in 2004, where it is supposed to be eliminated. This will give an infinite weighting factor for one impact category, which will overrule all other impact categories, unless the weighting factor is modified. 11.13.4 Application of weighting factors for different countriesWhen a product is imported to another country it may have impacts in both countries. The question is which weighting factors should be applied to the product to give a fair assessment in relation to other product that may be imported from a third country with another weighting factor for the same impact category. The choice will in general depend on the purpose of the weighting. The general recommendation to use EU normalisation references and weighting factors reflects the political prioritisation in Europe, which is relevant if the decision makers or important stakeholders are located in Europe. If the stakeholders are located outside of Europe, e.g. in Asia or the United States, this approach may be less relevant, and the World-wide normalisation references and weighting factors could be used. If should however be observed that these figures are crude estimates, and that the optimal solution would be to derive country-specific weighting factors. 11.14 Recommendation for future updatingFor some of the above mentioned impact categories the political targets and regulations are relatively clear and fits very well to the impact mechanisms. In these cases there are usually well-established reporting systems providing reliable data, and it is relatively simple to update weighting factors. However, in cases where the regulation and the political target setting do not fit the impact category, it requires considerable resources to provide the necessary data. Also in cases where many different substances are involved, it requires considerable resources to collect the necessary data and to adopt them to the established methodology. It should be considered to simplify the methodology and the calculation procedure in cases where there are larger differences between the impact category and regulation on which the weighting factors are based. 11.15 References:Energistyrelsen 1996, Energy 21. Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy, April 1996. Available at: http://www.ens.dk. Energistyrelsen 1999, Energy statistics. Available at: http://www.ens.dk. EU 1991a, Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment. Available at: http://europe.eu.int. EU 1991b, Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources. Available at: http://europe.eu.int. EU 1992, Revised Seveso Directive, EU Directive on Accident Hazards in Large Industrial plants. Council Directive 96/82/EC. Available at: http://europe.eu.int. EU 1994, Council Regulation (EC) No 3093/94 of 15 December 1994 on substances that deplete the ozone layer. http://europe.eu.int. EU 1996, IPPC directive (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control directive), Council Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996. Available at: http://europe.eu.int. EU 1998, EU Environment Minister Resolution, 17 June 1998. Available at: http://europe.eu.int. European Commission 1996, Progress Report on Implementation of the European Community Programme of Policy and Action in relation to the Environment and sustainable development. COM(95) 624, final. January 10, 1996. Available at: http://europe.eu.int. Hansen, J.H. 1997, Ozonlagsnedbrydende stoffer og visse drivhusgasser - 1995. Forbrug og emissioner. Miljøprojekt nr. 342. København: Miljøstyrelsen. Hauschild, M.Z., Olsen, S.I. & Wenzel, H. 1996, Toksicitet for mennesker i miljøet som vurderingskriterium ved miljøvurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.), Baggrund for miljøvurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M.Z. & Wenzel, H. 1996a, Drivhuseffekt som vurderingskriterium ved miljø.vurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.) Baggrund for miljø.vurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M.Z. & Wenzel, H. 1996b, Forsuring som vurderingskriterium ved miljø.vurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.) Baggrund for miljø.vurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M.Z. & Wenzel, H. 1996c, Fotokemisk ozondannelse som vurderingskriterium ved miljø.vurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.) Baggrund for miljø.vurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M.Z. & Wenzel, H. 1996d, Næringssaltbelastning som vurderingskriterium ved miljøvurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.) Baggrund for miljø.vurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M.Z. & Wenzel, H. 1996e, Stratosfærisk ozonnedbrydning som vurderingskriterium ved miljøvurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.) Baggrund for miljø.vurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M.Z., Wenzel, H., Damborg, A. & Tørsløv, J. 1996, Økotoksicitet som vurderingskriterium ved miljøvurdering af produkter. I Hauschild, M.Z. (ed.) Baggrund for miljø.vurdering af produkter. Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Dansk Industri. København. (in Danish). Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998, Acidification as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products in Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2 Scientific background eds. Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. London: Chapman & Hall. Hauschild, M.Z., Olsen, S.I. & Wenzel, H. 1998, Human toxicity as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998a, Acidification as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall. Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998b, Global warming as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall. Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998c, Nutrient enrichment as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall. Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998d, Photochemical ozone formation as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall Hauschild, M. & Wenzel, H. 1998e, Stratospheric ozone depletion as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall. Hauschild, M., Wenzel, H., Damborg, A. & Tørsløv, J. 1998, Ecotoxicity as a criterion in the environmental assessment of products. In Hauschild M, Wenzel H (eds.). Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. London: Chapman & Hall. Helsinki Commission 1974, Convention on the Protection of the Marine environment of the Baltic Sea Areas (HELCOM). Available at http://www.helcom.fi. ISO 2000a, Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Life cycle impact assessment. ISO 14042. Miljø- og Energiministeriet (Ministry of Environment and Energy) 1996, Executive regulation for the Application of Waste Products for Agricultural Purposes (Executive regulation on Waste Water Sludge), no. 823, 16 September 1996. Miljø- og Energiministeriet (Ministry of Environment and Energy) 1998, Executive regulation on prohibition of marketing and export of mercury and mercury containing products, executive regulation no. 692, 22 September 1998. Miljøstyrelsen (Danish EPA) 1986, Action plan for the reduction of the consumption of Pesticides, Danish EPA, 1986 (Pesticidhandlingsplanen, 1986). Miljøstyrelsen 1998, Vandmiljøplan II (Water Environmental Action Plan II). Available at: http://www.mst.dk. Miljøstyrelsen 1999, Homepage of Danish EPA, www/mst.dk/Ozonelayer/National regulation. OSPAR 1992, Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of North-East Atlantic (1992 OSPAR Convention). Available at http://www.ospar.org. UN 1997, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. December 1997. UN-ECE 1979, Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. Available: http//:www.unece.org. UN-ECE 1988a, The 1988 Sofia Protocol concerning the Control of Emis.sions of Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes. United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. Available: http://www.unece.org. UN-ECE 1988b, Declaration on NOx. United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. Available: http://www.unece.org. UN-ECE 1991, Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution concerning the control of emissions of volatile organic compounds or their transboundary fluxes. United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. Available: http//:www.unece.org. UN-ECE 1994, The 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions. United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. Available: http://www.unece.org. UNEP 1987, The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as adjusted and amended by the second Meeting of the Parties (London, 27-29 June 1990) and by the fourth Meeting of the Parties (Copenhagen, 23-25 November 1992) and further adjusted by the seventh Meeting of the Parties (Vienna, 5-7 December 1995) and further adjusted and amended by the ninth Meeting of the Parties (Montreal, 15-17 September 1997). Available at: http://www.unep.org. UNEP 1999, UNEP/IE statistics. Available at: http://www.unepie.int.com. UNEP 2002, Production and Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances under the Montreal Protocol, Ozone Secretariat, UNEP, April 2002. UN/FCCC 2003 (On-line searchable database of GHG inventory data) Available at: http:// http://ghg.unfccc.int/
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