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Children and the unborn child

Contents

Preface

1 Introduction
 
2 Biological susceptibility
2.1 Susceptible periods in human development
2.1.1 Human developmental stages
2.1.2 The reproductive cycle: Comparisons between humans and common experimental animals
2.1.3 Overall, susceptible periods
2.2 Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics in human development
2.2.1 Absorption
2.2.2 Distribution
2.2.3 Metabolism
2.2.4 Excretion
2.2.5 Overall, toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics
2.3 References
 
3 Exposure
3.1 Exposure of the unborn child
3.2 Oral exposure
3.2.1 Breastfeeding
3.2.2 Infant formulae
3.2.3 Drinking water
3.2.4 Diet and beverages
3.2.5 Non-dietary ingestion
3.3 Exposure via inhalation
3.4 Exposure via dermal contact
3.5 Overall
3.6 References
4 Testing methodology
4.1 The use of epidemiology
4.1.1 Types of epidemiological studies
4.1.2 Bias
4.1.3 Confounding
4.1.4 Controls
4.1.5 Strength
4.2 Test methods in experimental animals
4.2.1 Reproductive toxicity tests
4.2.2 Comparison to assessment of effects in adult animals
4.3 Test procedure for medicinal products
4.4 References
 
5 Specific substances, examples of exposure and effects
5.1 Alcohol
5.2 Tobacco smoke
5.3 Ambient air pollution
5.4 Pesticides
5.4.1 Organophosphates
5.4.2 Carbamates
5.4.3 Lindane
5.4.4 Paraquat
5.5 Drugs
5.5.1 Chloramphenicol
5.5.2 Sulfonamides
5.5.3 Diethylstilboestrol (DES)
5.6 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
5.7 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs)
5.8 Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
5.9 Phthalates
5.10 Lead
5.11 Mercury
5.12 Copper
5.13 Boric acid
5.14 Nitrate and nitrite
5.15 References
 
6 Regulations
6.1 Environmental contamination
6.2 Chemical substances and products
6.3 Cosmetics
6.4 Toys and childcare products
6.5 Food additives, pesticides and contaminants in food
6.5.1 Food additives
6.5.2 Pesticides
6.5.3 Veterinary medicinal products
6.5.4 Contaminants
6.6 Working environment
6.7 Drugs
6.7.1 Registration of drugs
6.7.2 Principles for dosing children, and pregnant and lactating women
6.8 The Precautionary principle
6.9 Overall
6.10 References
 
7 Summary, conclusions and recommendations
7.1 Summary
7.1.1 Aim of the project
7.1.2 Biological susceptibility
7.1.3 Exposure
7.1.4 Testing methodology
7.1.5 Specific substances, examples of exposure and effects
7.1.6 Regulations
7.2 Conclusions
7.2.1 Biological susceptibility
7.2.2 Exposure
7.3 Recommendations
7.3.1 Risk assessment
7.3.2 Testing of chemical substances
7.3.3 Risk management

Annex 1

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