2.2.   Sources of pollution in Denmark

The trade and industry sector in Denmark supports a total of 500,000 jobs, 25% of which are in trades and 75% in industries. The main branches of industry (in terms of GDPf) are: Iron and metal works (35%); Food, drink and tobacco (19%); Chemical substances (14%); Paper and printing (10%); Wood and furniture (5%). Danish enterprises are small by international standards, 80% of jobs being in enterprises with less than 500 employees. Fewer than 300 enterprises have more than 500 employees9.

The three largest branches (in terms of GDPf) also encompass the largest polluters, most of the problems being attributable to the discharge of trade effluent. On the other hand, there is little heavy industry in Denmark and hence no pollution from the associated mines and blast furnaces.

The main branches of Danish industry
Although figures are not available for industry as a whole, the following account should paint a relevant picture of the current level and trend in industrial pollution:

Energy: Industry accounts for 28% of total energy consumption in Denmark, or a total of 220 PJ per year. Energy consumption per unit produce is tending to fall.

Water: Approximately 50% of trade effluent is led directly to the sea. In 1993 these direct discharges together amounted to 2,600 tonnes N, 250 tonnes P and 26,000 tonnes BOD5. The pretreatment pollutant content corresponded to 5 million Person Equivalents (PE) while the discharges corresponded to 1.2 million PE, the degree of treatment therefore being 75%. Such pollution is on the decline, and further reductions are expected in the forthcoming years10. The remaining 50% of industrial trade effluent is discharged to the municipal sewerage system and is treated along with other urban sewage (treatment level just over 90%). Put simply, trade effluents cause twice as much pollution as sewage from the population.

Air: SO2, NOx and CO2 emissions to the air from industry are secondary in relation to other sources, accounting for only 16%, 17% and 15%, respectively, of total Danish emissions11. VOC emissions from industry are secondary to those from the transport sector, amounting to 19,200 tonnes in 199012.

Noise: The extent to which industrial noise pollution has been ameliorated through environmental administration has not yet been determined, nor has the extent of unresolved noise problems.

2.2.2.The energy sector:

Total Danish energy consumption amounts to 800 PJ, as is shown in the following table.

Gross energy consumption in Denmark apportioned according to use. 1980 and 1992. In PJ. 1980 1992 Space heating 267 222 Industrial processes 224 223 Transport 146 175 Electrical appliances, etc. 142 162 Total 779 782 Much of the energy is produced in large coal-fired power stations. These are an important source of pollution, accounting for 45% of Danish CO2 emissions, 60% of SO2 emissions and 30% of NOx emissions.

Denmark has staked much on renewable energy from windmills. The total windmill capacity in Denmark is approx. 500 MW (corresponding to a large power station). Danish production of renewable energy (mainly wind energy) amounted to 22 PJ in 199215. It is planned that energy production from windmills should be tripled. However, expansion on the windmill front has run into great difficulty in recent years because those neighbours who are not part-owners of the windmills fight them for all their worth.

Denmark decided against nuclear power as a possible source of energy production a decade ago, and is currently also trying to press Sweden to close the nuclear power station at Barsebäck, which lies just 20 km from Copenhagen.

Since 1973 (the first energy crisis), Danish energy consumption has only grown slightly, and has been constant since the second energy crisis in 1979. Industry has enhanced its energy efficiency such that more is produced for the same amount of energy. Households have also economized on heating, but the savings have been outweighed by increases on transport and electrical appliances. Extremely high energy levies as well as other incitements have induced consumers to save and to switch to district heating rather than warm their homes individually. The Danish combined power plant/district heating network accounts for 63% of energy consumption for space heating (1992 figure).

It is the government’s plan to reduce and modify energy consumption up to the year 2005 such that CO2 emissions will be reduced by 20%. The trend so far, which has been constant at approx. 60 million tonnes annually, does not seem to indicate that this target will be reached, however. As mentioned in Section 12.2.3, the Danish CO2 levy was raised in 1995 from a normal DKK 50 per tonne to a normal DKK 90 per tonne16. Further intervention in the future is not inconceivable.

2.2.3. The transport sector:

The Danish private car fleet comprises 1.7 million cars. Relative to the population, the fleet is slightly smaller than in neighbouring countries, this being attributable to the high purchase tax placed on cars (just over 200%) and the well-functioning public transport systems in the larger towns. The van and lorry fleet comprises 300,000 vehicles. The road net is 71,000 km of which 650 km is motorway. Traffic expressed in person-km amounted to 37,000 million km in 1991. This corresponds to a 40% increase since 1980, and the increase seems to be continuing.

The transport sector accounts for an increasing 20% of the energy consumption, 45% of NOx emissions and 20% of CO2 emissions.

2.2.4. The agricultural sector:

Prior to 1984 the agricultural sector was not considered to be an important source of pollution. However, incidents of oxygen deficit in Danish open marine waters during recent years and growing recognition of a connection between this phenomenon and nitrate leaching from agricultural land has brought the sector firmly into focus.

Agriculture in Denmark is very intensive, although not so intensive as in Holland. The soil and climate in Denmark are well-suited to agriculture. In order to improve production in dry periods, many Danish farmers now use field sprinklers; in dry summers up to 300 million m3 of water is used for this purpose, most of which is groundwater.

The main items of annual agricultural production are 1.4 million tonnes pork, 0.5 million tonnes dairy products, 0.2 million tonnes beef, 0.2 million tonnes poultry, 9 million tonnes cereals and 3 million tonnes sugar beet19. Virtually all pig and poultry breeding is undertaken indoors in livestock housing, as is the majority of cattle breeding. A large part of the meat and dairy products is exported.

Agriculture-related pollution problems are primarily attributable to the annual animal manure production of 40 million tonnes, as well as to the utilization of more than 300,000 tonnes commercial nitrate fertilizer and approx. 5,000 tonnes of pesticide active ingredients.

Plant breeding is undertaken throughout the country. The majority of purely cereal farms are to be found in the eastern part of the country, where the soil is best. On the other hand, cattle breeding is concentrated in Jutland, where pig breeding is also preponderant.

The nitrogen that leaches from agricultural land poses two problems: Firstly, it percolates down into the groundwater where in the more vulnerable areas it has led to or will lead to the groundwater being unfit for human consumption; secondly, some of the nitrogen is led via the watercourses to the sea, where it contributes to eutrophication.

2.2.5. Consumers:

Danish consumers behave in much the same way as other northern European consumers. Their energy consumption is considerable, as is their consumption of transport, and they produce sewage and a considerable amount of refuse. However, given the right incitements their behaviour can be changed. As already mentioned, high levies have been instrumental in teaching Danes to use less energy. It has not been possible to keep transport consumption in check though, and the petrol price decrease a couple of years ago probably further increased the tendency to use private cars. The majority of the Danish population inhabit areas serviced by sewerage systems (approx. 92%), and the degree of treatment of the sewage that is led through the public sewerage system is high (more than 90%). The consumers have to pay though, and the high charges placed on sewage effluent - together with economization campaigns - have led to a decrease in water consumption in Denmark in recent years. It has not yet proved possible to reduce refuse production, but most people are good at sorting refuse into refuse streams in whatever way required of them by their municipal authorities. This has led to an increase in recycling.