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Integration of Environmental Considerations at Different Levels of Decision Making
Annex A: Agriculture sector
A.1.1 Stakeholder Analysis
The agriculture sector is the primary supplier of food and raw materials. The
total agricultural area in Denmark covers approximately 2.8 million hectares and is the
main use of land. The sector is highly diverse at the regional and local levels, in terms
of the types of production systems and their products, and the size and structure of
production units 1) .
At the macro level, the Danish Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for setting the
policy framework and drawing up agricultural policies, principal among these being the
implementation of the EU Common Agricultural Policy. The administration of the CAP is the
responsibility of the Market Management and Intervention Board (EU-direktoratet),
including distribution of payments under the CAP. Agri-environment schemes are drawn up by
the Ministry, and commented on by an advisory committee comprising central, regional and
local government representatives, farming organisations, land-owning associations, nature
and recreation interests, and forestry interests.
At the meso level, the Municipalities are the environmental authority in relation to
agriculture with responsibility for supervision of farms, of which just over half are
livestock farms. The Counties are responsible for administering and negotiating contracts
with farmers under agri-environment schemes. In relation to biodiversity issues, the
Counties administer nature conservation legislation at the local level and manage a large
number of protected areas. The Municipalities are fully involved in all planning
processes.
The two main agricultural organisations at the meso level are the Danish Farmers’
Union and the Family Farmers’ Association, who between them represent around 95% of
Danish farmers. These organisations have an influential role in shaping policy,
negotiating directly with the Ministry of Agriculture. They also aim to support and
influence the individual farmer: the Danish Agricultural Advisory Centre (DAAC) is owned
and run jointly by the two main farmers’ organisations. The DAAC’s aims include
the communication of knowledge and information, development of methods and tools, studies,
education and training. Local centres provide specialist advice to farmers in all
farming-related areas, for which farmers are charged about 90% of the cost. The DAAC is
highly influential, providing about 80% of the major advisory, training and information
services.
Non-governmental organisations also play a role in influencing policy. The Danish
Society for the Conservation of Nature had considerable influence during the 1980s on the
Action Plan on the Aquatic Environment, and the Danish Angler’s Federation has had a
consistent and significant influence mainly regarding the condition of watercourses.
At the micro level, farmers and households are the principal players as producers and
consumers of agricultural produce, although processors and retailers play a significant
role in influencing agricultural markets and practices. For example, in the dairy sector,
MD Foods dominates the market with an effective monopoly in the retail and distribution of
all dairy products in Denmark. The majority of dairy farmers sell their milk solely to MD
Foods and as such the company is in a position to exert a strong influence on the market,
product standards, prices etc. The only other real outlet for independent farmers
is Irma, which was the front runner in developing labelling in the 1970s and a leader in
organics, quality foods and traditional produce.
Although the agriculture sector in Denmark only contributes 3.7% to GDP, the
sector’s influence is far greater. This may be attributable to the fact that farmers
hold many influential positions, for example in Municipal and County Councils, and that
much of the Danish population has not too distant roots in the countryside.
A.1.2 Key Environmental Issues
Agriculture can have beneficial and harmful effects on the environment. The extent and
causes of environmental impacts vary significantly across Europe largely due to
differences in farming practices and local conditions. Some general trends are presented
below and Table A1.1 sets out the relative importance of environmental problems
related to agriculture in Denmark.
 | semi-natural landscapes and habitats which were shaped over centuries by traditional
forms of extensive agriculture have undergone dramatic change in recent decades; |
| the intensification and specialisation of farming in more productive areas has led to
larger field sizes, uniform landscapes and loss of hedgerows and other linear features; |
| the marginalisation of less viable farming areas has in some cases led to abandonment
and scrub invasion, which often reverts to a state of poor biodiversity; |
| an increasing reliance on commercial fertilisers and pesticides, and greater
mechanisation has affected soil fertility and erosion rates; |
| levels of soil contamination, air pollution in some areas has led to nutrient enrichment
of surface and groundwaters; and |
| drainage and water abstraction for irrigation purposes lowers the water table and
changes soil quality and fertility. In some places, this has led to loss of wetlands. |
Table A 1.1
Relative Importance of Environmental Issues in Danish Agriculture
| Environmental Issue |
Significance |
| Pollution, and environmental contamination caused by chemical
inputs, high concentrations of livestock, and greenhouse gases |
Highly significant impact nationally |
| Loss of biodiversity and landscape quality caused by removal
of landscape elements, reclamation, monoculture farming and intensification in general |
Highly significant impact nationally |
| Water shortage, soil compaction, soil erosion, and loss of
wetlands caused by intensive arable farming, irrigation and drainage |
Historically, significant national impact |
| Loss of biodiversity and landscape quality due to
marginalisation and abandonment of agriculture |
Significant impact in some areas |
| Source: Primdahl (1999), Environmental Aspects of Agenda
2000, Danish Nature Council, in Conference Proceedings ‘Agriculture and the
Environment’ University of Warwick April 1999 |
In Denmark two key environmental issues that have been identified by central government
2) are:
| The need to protect groundwater resources: The quality of groundwater is affected by
pesticides and leached nutrients from agriculture. Predominantly sandy soils and the
Atlantic climate contribute to a high risk of leaching due to a relatively high nitrogen
surplus. Pesticides residues have been found in groundwater in most areas of Denmark and
leaching of fertilisers is also polluting groundwater resources. This is of key
significance in Denmark as 99% of the water supply is taken from groundwater sources, and
its quality is therefore of great significance to the health of the nation. As a result,
all of Denmark is designated a nitrate vulnerable zone. In addition, recent incidents of
marine eutrophication have emphasised the problem of nitrate leaching from agricultural
land. |
| the need to conserve areas for diversity of species and to bring areas back into their
natural state, especially wetlands. |
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the key driver of agricultural policy in the
European Union. It has had a powerful influence on the nature and type of farming
practised in the EU today. The enormous budgetary pressure which CAP places on the EU, and
the incentives it has created for environmentally damaging agriculture are now widely
recognised. The CAP was initially reformed in 1992 to incorporate provisions for
environmental protection schemes, and these have been developed further in the Agenda 2000
reform of the CAP adopted in May 1999, although their role in influencing agricultural
practices is still minor.
In addition, public concerns, primarily about food safety but also about intensive
production methods and animal welfare, are creating consumer-led incentives for the
adoption of organic and low-input farming. However, the cost of transition to organic
production is high, particularly as it is several years before produce can be sold as
organic, and therefore financial support to assist farmers in the transition to organic
production is important. Financial subsidies for organic production also ensure that
retail prices of organic produce can be competitive with conventional produce as the
market develops.
For the decision analysis described in Section A1.4, we have taken as examples
two of the key environmental issues for the agricultural sector:
| Water quality |
| Biodiversity |
|
A.1.3 Framework for Market Based Decision Making
A.1.3.1 EU Context
The Common Agricultural Policy subsidises European farming on a large scale and
sets the overall framework within which product and consumption decisions are set. The key
changes in agricultural policy are:
| The 1992 CAP Reform, based on the MacSharry proposals, aimed to reduce over-production
and budgetary pressures by introducing set-aside and direct compensation payments for
farmers rather than price support measures. Accompanying measures were introduced
including the Agri-environment Regulation (2078/92/EEC); and |
| The Agenda 2000 reform of the CAP, agreed in May 1999, continued this shift away from
price support and towards direct payments to farmers and will place greater emphasis than
before on agri-environment measures and other forms of support within the new Rural
Development Regulation. |
A number of other regulatory measures contribute to the integration of environmental
actions related to biodiversity and water quality in the agricultural sector. These are
outlined below:
| The Nitrates Directive which requires Member States to designate Nitrate Vulnerable
Zones and to develop and disseminate codes of good agricultural practice in those areas. A
recent assessment by DG Environment of the European Commission shows a high overall level
of compliance with the Directive, but with some Member States taking a more active role in
disseminating good farming practices to farmers and dealing with wider issues than simply
nitrates management. |
| The Habitats and Birds Directives which protects areas designated on the basis of their
high conservation value; |
| Extensive legislation for pesticides in relation to their registration, use, and
allowable levels of residue in treated agricultural products and the environment. |
| Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 sets up a harmonised framework for the labelling, production
and control of agricultural products bearing or intended to bear indications referring to
organic production methods. The regulation lays down minimum standards which must be
complied with for the produce to be legitimately labelled as organic. |
| A comprehensive set of legislation relating to the conservation and sustainable
utilisation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. The legislation relates
to phyto-sanitary protection, marketing of seed and plant propagating material and
Community plant variety rights. |
A.1.3.2 Danish Context
The action plans developed in the 1980s have contributed to a reduction of the negative
impacts of agriculture on the aquatic environment and nature, but improvements are still
needed. A number of recent policy initiatives have created a long-term basis for the
improvement of groundwater quality in Denmark, including the Aquatic Environment Plan II,
the results of the Bichel Committee’s work and the Act on Contaminated Soil. Efforts
are concentrated on further reducing the use of pesticides and fertiliser, as well as the
spreading of sludge containing heavy metals etc.
A national action plan on biological diversity and nature protection will also be
developed, with the existing action plans and strategies as the basis. It is intended that
the plan will promote the development of networks of interconnected protected areas, and
help to ensure that biological diversity is respected by sectors including agriculture.
The government will promote local practice which meets special protection requirements in
particularly sensitive agricultural areas, nitrate-sensitive water catchment areas and in
riparian zones along aquatic environments.
The Aquatic Environment Plan II adopted in 1998 aims to achieve the target 50%
reduction in discharges of nitrogen from agriculture through reduced application to fields
and better exploitation of the applied fertiliser. It also aims to promote environmentally
beneficial agricultural practices and to establish more forests and wetlands to protect
groundwater sources and flora and fauna.
In relation to pesticides, a tax has been imposed and, since 1994 220 pesticides have
been removed from the market. Although the use of pesticides has decreased in terms of the
quantity of active substances applied, the frequency of application has not significantly
decreased. The Bichel committee concluded that phase-out was not practically feasible but
that pesticide use could be cut significantly. Following the committee’s
recommendations, a draft plan has recently been produced by the government on reducing the
use of pesticides. This aim is to achieve a general reduction in the use of pesticides on
treated areas, a reduction in the exposure of endangered areas and an increase in the area
farmed organically, thereby reducing use by a fifth by 2002. The draft plan will cut
spraying frequency, create ten metre wide no-spray zones around all significant water
courses and triple the area of organic farmland, taking the overall share of organic
agriculture in Denmark to 10%.
Since the beginning of 1996, the County Councils have assumed responsibility for
administering and negotiating contracts under agri-environment schemes with farmers. The
agri-environment schemes are drawn up by the Ministry of Agriculture, in consultation with
an advisory committee comprising central, regional and local government representatives,
farming organisations, land-owning associations, nature and recreation interests, and
forestry interests, to comment on the plans. The schemes are then submitted by the
Ministry to the Commission. Commission approval for the County Councils' New Environment
Support Programme was given in February of this year. The following measures are eligible
for payments:
| upkeep of permanent grasslands; |
| promotion of public access; |
| increase in water levels in lowland areas; |
| maintenance of the countryside and landscape; and |
| long-term set aside. |
The Danish Government is also currently preparing a major revision to the contents of
the national programme. The changes will focus on promoting measures addressing specific
local issues developed through negotiations between County Councils and the farmers. It is
anticipated that the measures will extend beyond groundwater protection to enhancement of
landscapes and nature value.
A.1.4 Decision Flow Analysis
Decision flow analyses for the agriculture sector, for households, farmers and
municipalities in relation the issues of water quality and biodiversity are presented in Tables
1.2-1.4. The analyses highlight that farmers are the most significant decision-makers
in influencing both water quality and biodiversity, more so than either households or
municipalities, although both of these others can have an important role.
It emerged that recurring parameters in the decisions made by farmers were:
| profitability and financial risk; |
| awareness of environmental impacts and perception of their significance. |
There are a range of tools used by various actors to affect these parameters, although
with limited effect to date. For example, financial support schemes to make
agri-environment measures more viable and attractive to farmers are implemented across the
European Union, although for many farmers the balance of financial incentives does not
favour the take-up of these schemes. Information and advice for farmers on
environmentally-friendly farming techniques is also provided across the EU by a variety of
organisations, and in Denmark a particularly effective scheme for advising farmers is in
operation (the Danish Agricultural Advisory Council), and interesting examples exist in
most other EU member states. However, many farmers still remain to be convinced of the
significance of the impacts of their activities.
These parameters are also significant framework conditions for successful operation of
the policy tools, and therefore it may be important not only to investigate where there
are gaps in the use of tools but also to revisit the parameters where tools already exist
to see how they may be made more effective or influential.
Table A1.2
Households
Table A1.3 Farmers and Biodiversity
| Parameters |
Tools / Mechanisms |
Examples |
| Should agro-chemicals be used? |
|
| Type of crop/produce/activity and possibilities for
substitution |
Advice
| information on fertility requirements of crops/produce/activities |
| information on management of soil fertility |
R&D
| knowledge of crop-pest interaction/resistance |
| development of pest-resistant crops |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
Industry Collaboration
| farmers’ networks for shared ownership/ use of specialised equipment |
|
Denmark: grants for land taken out of agricultural
production |
| Profitability of crop/produce/activity |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment subsidies |
Marketing
| promotion of organic produce |
|
Greece: grants to promote pesticide-free cultivation
of cereals and grain Switzerland: grants for farmers not farming intensively
adjacent to wetlands |
| Awareness of alternatives |
Education/ advice
| information/advice services on integrated crop/pest management |
|
Denmark: Agricultural Advisory Centre recommending
conversation to alternatives |
| Type of farming (eg organic, extensive, integrated
crop management, rotation) |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| organic conversion assistance |
| preferential loans |
Advice
| information/advice services on farm management and methods |
|
Denmark: grants for organic production UK:
financial assistance for conversion to organic farming
Switzerland: grants for farmers not farming intensively adjacent to wetlands |
| Perception of risk (financial, market strength/reliability) |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
| preferential loans |
Industry Collaboration
| producer organisation/co-operatives for joint marketing/distribution |
Marketing
| producer organisations/co-operatives |
| organic certification |
| quality labelling |
|
|
| Location (eg distance from water courses) |
Guidance
| codes of practice on application of manure |
|
EU: Member State codes of practice to implement
Nitrates Directive |
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of agrochemical use |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental impacts |
Education/advice
| information on environmental and health impacts of agrochemical use |
|
|
| Regulations |
Regulation
| regulations governing use of pesticides |
|
|
| Which agrochemical? |
|
|
| Type of farming (eg organic, mixed, extensive),
allowing use of organic fertilisers |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| conversion assistance |
| preferential loans |
Advice
| information/advice services on farm management methods |
|
|
| Cost versus effect on yield/profitability |
Financial incentives
| fertiliser/pesticide taxes |
| agri-environment schemes |
Marketing
| premium price for organic products |
|
UK: grants to compensate for changes required to
protect nitrate sensitive areas and drinking water sources Finland: fixed for
pesticide market entrance, plus 35% of price (excl. VAT) |
| Perception of risk (financial, markets) |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
Industry Collaboration
| producer organisation/co-operatives for joint marketing/distribution |
Marketing
| organic certification |
| quality labelling |
| promotion of organic produce |
|
|
| Requirements of crop/produce |
Advice
| information on fertility requirements of crops/produce/activity |
R&D
| development of new crop strains |
| development of new pesticides |
|
|
| Convenience (eg is animal manure available on farm, ie
mixed/integrated farming?) |
Advice
| promotion of mixed farming/integrated crop management |
|
|
| Availability |
Regulation/standards
| restriction/ban on use of certain types of agrochemicals |
| government/industry agreements on content |
R&D
| development of new pesticides |
|
Sweden: targets for limits on toxic substances in
digested sludge Belgium: agreement between government and fertiliser companies to
limit cadmium in fertilisers |
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Advice/education
| information on environmental/health effects of agrochemicals |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
Product information
| product labelling/information |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental/health effects of agrochemical use |
|
|
| How will agrochemical be used? |
|
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Education
| information/education on use and impacts of agrochemicals |
Product information
| product labelling, product information |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
UK: farm visits to advise/train on pesticide
management, by Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group |
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental/health effects of agrochemical use |
|
|
| Location (eg distance from water courses) |
Regulation
| regulations governing application |
Guidance
| codes of practice on application |
|
|
| Local conditions (eg slope, rainfall, timing) |
Guidance
| codes of practice on application (timing and quantities) |
Regulations
| regulations on use of agrochemicals |
|
UK: local environmental risk assessment procedures for
guidance on pesticide application |
| Characteristics of agrochemical product |
Product information
| product labelling/information on use of product |
|
|
| Cost versus impact on yields/profitability |
Financial incentives
| fertiliser/pesticide taxes |
| agri-environment subsidies |
|
Finland: fixed fee for pesticide market entrance, plus
35% of price (excl. VAT) |
| Perception of risk |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
|
|
| Regulation |
Regulation/standards
| regulations on pesticide residues in produce |
|
|
| How will unused agrochemicals be disposed of? |
|
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Guidance
| codes of practice on disposal |
| information on regulatory requirements |
Education
| information/education on environmental impacts of agrochemicals |
Product information
| Product labelling/information giving guidance on disposal |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Available and convenient facilities |
Infrastructure provision
| provision of adequate and convenient facilities and services |
|
UK: National Pesticide Retrieval Scheme, run by
British Agrochemical Association - fee charged to farmers per kg of pesticide |
| Regulation |
Regulation
| regulations on disposal of agrochemicals |
|
|
| Cost of disposal |
Financial incentives
| charges for waste disposal |
| taxes on waste disposal |
|
|
| How will livestock be managed (extensively or
intensively)? |
|
| Productivity |
Advice
| information on increasing productivity of extensive farming |
|
|
| Profitability |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
Advice
| information/advice on profitable management |
|
Switzerland: subsidy for extensive agricultural
acreage |
| Perception of risk |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
Marketing
| promotion/marketing of quality products |
| quality labelling of produce |
|
|
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Education
| information/education on environmental impacts of intensive farming |
|
|
| Regulation |
Planning
| EIA of intensive livestock units |
| planning restrictions on type of farming activity |
|
EU: EIA required by EU directive |
| How will livestock waste be managed? |
|
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Guidance
| codes of practice on farm waste management |
Advice/education
| information/education on environmental impacts of animal waste |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of animal waste |
|
|
| Regulation |
Regulation
| regulations on handling and disposal of waste |
|
|
| Standard of farm facilities |
Regulation
| regulations on minimum standards for on-farm waste handling facilities |
Financial incentives
| grants and other financial support for improvement of on-farm waste handling facilities |
|
Greece: partial compensation for installation of waste
facilities for protection of water quality |
| Availability of disposal routes |
Regulation
| regulations on spreading of manure |
Guidance
| codes of practice on spreading of animal waste |
Education/advice
| information/education/advice on environmental impacts of animal waste |
Infrastructure provision
| provision of disposal facilities |
|
|
| Cost of disposal |
Financial incentives
| taxes on waste disposal |
| charges for waste disposal |
| |
|
|
| Will crop be irrigated? |
|
|
| Availability of water resources |
Planning
| SEA of water resource management plans |
| EIA of water management schemes |
| catchment management planning |
Regulation
| abstraction permits |
| regulations governing abstraction/use |
|
EU: EIA required by EU directive for water management
schemes |
| Choice of crop and possibilities for substitution |
R&D/advice
| information/advice on water requirements for certain crops/low-water crops |
|
|
| Cost of water versus impact on productivity |
Economic incentives
| full-cost pricing of water |
|
France: charge for water use to be introduced in 2000. |
| Risk |
Economic instruments
| availability of farm insurance against low yields |
|
|
| Weather |
|
|
| Which method of irrigation? |
|
|
| Knowledge/awareness of options |
Education
| information/advice/help on low-use systems |
|
|
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of water resource use |
|
|
| Installation costs |
Financial incentives
| subsidies/grants for equipment and infrastructure installation |
|
|
| Operating costs |
Financial incentives
| full-cost pricing of water |
|
|
| Quantity of available water resource |
Planning
| SEA of water resource management plans |
| EIA of water management schemes |
| catchment management planning |
Regulation
| abstraction permits |
| regulations governing abstraction/use |
|
EU: EIA required by EU directive |
| Choice of practices and methods |
|
| Knowledge of methods |
Education
| information on beneficial practices |
|
UK: Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group is a network
of farmers and conservationists which gives advice on practices of benefit to wildlife
without compromising productivity or economic performance |
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on effects of damaging practices and methods |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of practices |
|
|
| Effect on profitability |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| organic conversion assistance |
| less-favoured area payments |
| preferential loans |
Advice
| information/advice on profitable management |
|
|
| Regulation |
Regulation/standards
| regulations on required or prohibited practices within protected areas |
| designated areas |
|
EU: Natura 2000, Special Protection Areas |
| Retention, protection or reinstatement of
features (eg hedges, ponds, wetlands) |
|
| Knowledge |
Education
| information on management of features |
|
|
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental benefits or harmful effects |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on importance of features for biodiversity |
|
|
| Effect on profitability |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| organic conversion assistance |
| preferential loans |
Advice
| information/advice on profitable management |
|
Sweden: compensation for farmers for additional cost
of protection of biodiversity, habitats, landscape, cultural heritage Norway: grant
for agricultural landscape protection |
| Regulation |
Regulation/standards
| regulations on protected features |
| designated areas |
|
|
| Choice of crop/produce |
|
|
| Knowledge of alternatives |
Education/advice
| information about alternative activities/breeds/varieties |
|
|
| Profitability/market security |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| less-favoured area payments |
| charges for environmentally damaging activities |
Industry Collaboration
| Producer organisations/co-operatives for joint marketing/distribution |
Marketing
| quality labelling |
| GMO labelling |
|
Sweden: licence fee for exploitation of peat |
| Perception of value/significance |
Education/advice
| information on significance for biodiversity |
|
|
Table 1.3 Farmers and Water Quality
| Parameters |
Tools / Mechanisms |
Examples |
| Should agro-chemicals be used? |
|
|
| Type of crop/produce/activity and possibilities for
substitution |
Advice
| information on fertility requirements of crops/produce/activities |
| information on management of soil fertility |
R&D
| knowledge of crop-pest interaction/resistance |
| development of pest-resistant crops |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
Industry Collaboration
| farmers’ networks for shared ownership/ use of specialised equipment |
|
Denmark: grants for land taken out of agricultural
production |
| Profitability of crop/produce/activity |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment subsidies |
Marketing
| promotion of organic produce |
|
Greece: grants to promote pesticide-free cultivation
of cereals and grain Switzerland: grants for farmers not farming intensively
adjacent to wetlands |
| Awareness of alternatives |
Education/ advice
| information/advice services on integrated crop/pest management |
|
Denmark: Agricultural Advisory Centre recommending
conversation to alternatives |
| Type of farming (eg organic, extensive, integrated
crop management, rotation) |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| organic conversion assistance |
| preferential loans |
Advice
| information/advice services on farm management and methods |
|
Denmark: grants for organic production UK:
financial assistance for conversion to organic farming
Switzerland: grants for farmers not farming intensively adjacent to wetlands |
| Perception of risk (financial, market strength/reliability) |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
| preferential loans |
Industry Collaboration
| producer organisation/co-operatives for joint marketing/distribution |
Marketing
| producer organisations/co-operatives |
| organic certification |
| quality labelling |
|
|
| Location (eg distance from water courses) |
Guidance
| codes of practice on application of manure |
|
EU: Member State codes of practice to implement
Nitrates Directive |
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of agrochemical use |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental impacts |
Education/advice
| information on environmental and health impacts of agrochemical use |
|
|
| Regulations |
Regulation
| regulations governing use of pesticides |
|
|
| Which agrochemical? |
|
|
| Type of farming (eg organic, mixed, extensive),
allowing use of organic fertilisers |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
| conversion assistance |
| preferential loans |
Advice
| information/advice services on farm management methods |
|
|
| Cost versus effect on yield/profitability |
Financial incentives
| fertiliser/pesticide taxes |
| agri-environment schemes |
Marketing
| premium price for organic products |
|
UK: grants to compensate for changes required to
protect nitrate sensitive areas and drinking water sources Finland: fixed for
pesticide market entrance, plus 35% of price (excl. VAT) |
| Perception of risk (financial, markets) |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
Industry Collaboration
| producer organisation/co-operatives for joint marketing/distribution |
Marketing
| organic certification |
| quality labelling |
| promotion of organic produce |
|
|
| Requirements of crop/produce |
Advice
| information on fertility requirements of crops/produce/activity |
R&D
| development of new crop strains |
| development of new pesticides |
|
|
| Convenience (eg is animal manure available on farm, ie
mixed/integrated farming?) |
Advice
| promotion of mixed farming/integrated crop management |
|
|
| Availability |
Regulation/standards
| restriction/ban on use of certain types of agrochemicals |
| government/industry agreements on content |
R&D
| development of new pesticides |
|
Sweden: targets for limits on toxic substances in
digested sludge Belgium: agreement between government and fertiliser companies to
limit cadmium in fertilisers |
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Advice/education
| information on environmental/health effects of agrochemicals |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
Product information
| product labelling/information |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental/health effects of agrochemical use |
|
|
| How will agrochemical be used? |
|
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Education
| information/education on use and impacts of agrochemicals |
Product information
| product labelling, product information |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
UK: farm visits to advise/train on pesticide
management, by Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group |
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental/health effects of agrochemical use |
|
|
| Location (eg distance from water courses) |
Regulation
| regulations governing application |
Guidance
| codes of practice on application |
|
|
| Local conditions (eg slope, rainfall, timing) |
Guidance
| codes of practice on application (timing and quantities) |
Regulations
| regulations on use of agrochemicals |
|
UK: local environmental risk assessment procedures for
guidance on pesticide application |
| Characteristics of agrochemical product |
Product information
| product labelling/information on use of product |
|
|
| Cost versus impact on yields/profitability |
Financial incentives
| fertiliser/pesticide taxes |
| agri-environment subsidies |
|
Finland: fixed fee for pesticide market entrance, plus
35% of price (excl. VAT) |
| Perception of risk |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
|
|
| Regulation |
Regulation/standards
| regulations on pesticide residues in produce |
|
|
| How will unused agrochemicals be disposed of? |
|
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Guidance
| codes of practice on disposal |
| information on regulatory requirements |
Education
| information/education on environmental impacts of agrochemicals |
Product information
| Product labelling/information giving guidance on disposal |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Available and convenient facilities |
Infrastructure provision
| provision of adequate and convenient facilities and services |
|
UK: National Pesticide Retrieval Scheme, run by
British Agrochemical Association - fee charged to farmers per kg of pesticide |
| Regulation |
Regulation
| regulations on disposal of agrochemicals |
|
|
| Cost of disposal |
Financial incentives
| charges for waste disposal |
| taxes on waste disposal |
|
|
| How will livestock be managed (extensively or
intensively)? |
|
| Productivity |
Advice
| information on increasing productivity of extensive farming |
|
|
| Profitability |
Financial incentives
| agri-environment schemes |
Advice
| information/advice on profitable management |
|
Switzerland: subsidy for extensive agricultural
acreage |
| Perception of risk |
Financial incentives
| availability of farm insurance |
| availability of government support/price guarantees |
Marketing
| promotion/marketing of quality products |
| quality labelling of produce |
|
|
| Awareness of environmental effects |
Education
| information/education on environmental impacts of intensive farming |
|
|
| Regulation |
Planning
| EIA of intensive livestock units |
| planning restrictions on type of farming activity |
|
EU: EIA required by EU directive |
| How will livestock waste be managed? |
|
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Guidance
| codes of practice on farm waste management |
Advice/education
| information/education on environmental impacts of animal waste |
Environmental management systems
| EMAS/ISO/farm audits |
|
|
| Perception of significance of environmental effects |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of animal waste |
|
|
| Regulation |
Regulation
| regulations on handling and disposal of waste |
|
|
| Standard of farm facilities |
Regulation
| regulations on minimum standards for on-farm waste handling facilities |
Financial incentives
| grants and other financial support for improvement of on-farm waste handling facilities |
|
Greece: partial compensation for installation of waste
facilities for protection of water quality |
| Availability of disposal routes |
Regulation
| regulations on spreading of manure |
Guidance
| codes of practice on spreading of animal waste |
Education/advice
| information/education/advice on environmental impacts of animal waste |
Infrastructure provision
| provision of disposal facilities |
|
|
| Cost of disposal |
Financial incentives
| taxes on waste disposal |
| charges for waste disposal |
| |
|
|
| Will crop be irrigated? |
|
|
| Availability of water resources |
Planning
| SEA of water resource management plans |
| EIA of water management schemes |
| catchment management planning |
Regulation
| abstraction permits |
| regulations governing abstraction/use |
|
EU: EIA required by EU directive for water management
schemes |
| Choice of crop and possibilities for substitution |
R&D/advice
| information/advice on water requirements for certain crops/low-water crops |
|
|
| Cost of water versus impact on productivity |
Economic incentives
| full-cost pricing of water |
|
France: charge for water use to be introduced in 2000. |
| Risk |
Economic instruments
| availability of farm insurance against low yields |
|
|
| Weather |
|
|
| Which method of irrigation? |
|
|
| Knowledge/awareness of options |
Education
| information/advice/help on low-use systems |
|
|
| Awareness of environmental impacts |
Education/advice
| information on environmental impacts of water resource use |
|
|
| Installation costs |
Financial incentives
| subsidies/grants for equipment and infrastructure installation |
|
|
| Operating costs |
Financial incentives
| full-cost pricing of water |
|
|
| Quantity of available water resource |
Planning
| SEA of water resource management plans |
| EIA of water management schemes |
| catchment management planning |
Regulation
| abstraction permits |
| regulations governing abstraction/use |
|
EU: EIA required by EU directive |
Table A1.4 Municipalities as Regulators
(1) Cereal production accounts for just over
half of this, with other important crops being oilseed rape, sugar beet, potatoes and
grass seed. Much of the land is also given over to pasture, and just over half of farms
are livestock farms
(2) Personal communication, September 1996
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