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Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region

Contents

Preface

The countries in the Baltic area were the first to develop a regional action plan for a sustainable development and the region may also be the first to show the way towards a common regional sustainable development within the EU. Many of the countries have applied for accession to the EU and through membership, and thereby a closer co-operation with the other parts of Europe, these countries may participate in setting the agenda in the EU co-operation and thereby show the way forward.

The co-operation within the fields of environment and energy in the Baltic area started long before the fall of the wall in the HELCOM co-operation. The countries have for a long time been working on ameliorating the environment in the Baltic through the Helsinki Convention and its recommendations. Since then, the entire co-operation within the field of environment has gone through a long phase of renewal and many news fields of cooperation have been started. Not least thanks to the Baltic Agenda 21 project, which among others took an important step towards integration of environmental considerations in a great number of growth sectors. The integration of environmental considerations within other sectors as a means to obtain a sustainable development has thereby come on the agenda in the Baltic area.

The Danish Environmental Protection Agency has published this book with help from the Danish Energy Agency and the Danish Forest and Nature Agency. The objective of publishing a book concerning the trans-boundary pollution of the Baltic area, the conventions in force and the other parts of the environmental co-operation is a wish to make an overview of the most important actors and activities within this area. It is my hope that this book will be of inspiration for a more targeted co-operation in the area towards a sustainable development.

Steen Gade

Readerīs Guide

The description of the trans-boundary environmental problems in the Baltic region is found in Chapter 2 of this booklet.

The chapter is initiated by a short clarification concerning the broader perspective of international co-operation within the field of environment, 2.1 and concerning the route to sustainable development, based on the pollution phenomena, 2.2.

Chapter 2.3 contains information about the Baltic as regards size, depths, oxygen and salts content, water exchange and run-off area.

Chapters 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 contain descriptions of water pollution, air pollution, nuclear safety and biodiversity in the Baltic area.

The description of conventions and thereby of the legal environmental cooperation in the region is found in Chapter 3. The chapter is initiated by an introduction to questions regarding general international law in connection with conventions, 3.1. The regional conventions are described in Chapters 3.2.1-5 and the other international conventions in Chapters 3.3.1-27.

The description of conventions is organised with the objective that this booklet shall function as a handbook for project managers and others involved in working for a better environment in the Baltic region. Under each convention, information is available concerning objectives and origin, geographical limitation, contracted parties at the end of the 20th century, organisation and decision process, field of activities and relations to the EU. Hereto comes information about possible technical and financial support programmes in connection with the convention.

The environmental-political cooperation about the Baltic region is taking place in many fora and at different levels, which are described in Chapter 4. The environmental co-operation in the EU is described in 4.1, and the Nordic environmental cooperation is described in 4.2.The regional and the other international environmental co-operation are described in Chapters 4.3.1-11 and Chapters 4.4.1-8.

The information in Chapter 4 is organised under the same headings as in Chapter 3 about conventions.

Also professional bodies co-operate about environmental protection in the Baltic region. Available information about the most important professional bodies is available in Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 contains a summary and conclusion of the question whether the legal co-operation within the conventions covers environmental problems in the Baltic region on an overall level.

1. Introduction

The Eastern European countries have been developing rapidly during late years. This has led to a long series of new and extended fields of co-operation both on the national, regional, and international level. For Denmark, especially the co-operation around the Baltic and the countries surrounding the Baltic are of great interest. Many of these countries have applied for membership of the EU, which further brings the various European co-operations and international processes within this field into focus. Consequently, there is a great need to have a better overview of these co-operations and international processes.

In 1988, a survey of the European cooperation within the field of environment was made. This survey became very popular and was frequently used in the following years.

This booklet has therefore been prepared with a view to create an overview of the regional co-operation between the countries in the Baltic area and their participation in the European and international cooperation within the field of environment, but also in order to assess whether the cooperation covers the existing environmental problems and involves the parties which are relevant for obtaining a solution.

In order to assess whether the cooperation meets the requirements, this booklet contains an overall description of the environmental problems of the region as well as a description of the co-operation within environmental legislation (conventions, etc.) and the most important fields of co-operation of the region, the European and international cooperation within environmental politics. The booklet concentrates on the framework of environmental policies, conditions and actors and will hopefully lead to a better understanding of the development of the environmental efforts and how the various environmental efforts can work together in the future.

The booklet has been made based on a Danish perspective for use in connection with the Danish efforts in the Baltic area, including the Danish financial support to the new countries of the region. This financial support is among others meant to support the implementation of international environmental legislation in the recipient countries.The clarification must also be useful in other Baltic countries and will therefore also be available in English

The definition of environment used in this booklet is broader than that of the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy, since it also includes the question of fisheries in the Baltic and that of nuclear safety.

Therefore, not only the Agencies of the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy and their national planning department have contributed to the booklet; also the Danish Ministries of Food, Agriculture, and Fisheries and the Danish Emergency Services Agency have contributed. It is indicated in the description of the conventions, which ministry/agency is responsible for the convention.

Carl Bro International - Carl Bro Group have assisted with the preparation of the booklet and prepared parts of the chapter on the Baltic and the pollution thereof, parts of the chapter on political co-operation and the chapter on professional bodies in the Baltic Region. It should therefore be stressed that information and conclusions within this field do not necessarily express the opinion of the above mentioned institutions.

Nature as a Basis

Nature is the basis of all human activities.We get our resources from nature, we use nature to get rid of our waste, and at the same time we would like to have a clean and interesting nature with a varying flora and fauna so that we have something to look at when walking around in nature.

The resources we get from nature can be divided into the exhaustible resources, i.e. resources that can be used up, for instance oil and metals, the reproducible resources, for instance fish stock, forests, etc. and finally, the non-exhaustible resources, for instance wind, sun and wave energy, biogas, etc.

Our activities produce a large quantity of waste, which we would like to get rid of again.We deposit the waste in nature again, where it produces pollution. Our types of waste produce different types of pollution. There is local pollution, for instance separation of dioxins from waste combustion, groundwater pollution by pesticides, herbicides that can influence food safety.There also is the regional pollution such as that of the Baltic and finally the global pollution by ozone-depleting substances and green house gases such as carbon dioxide, etc. At the same time, we expect to have clean drinking water and a clean nature as a basis for food production and as a common benefit, which can be used for recreational purposes. A place where we can go for a walk, study the flora and fauna in our spare time. The clean nature thus also is an amenity value for us.

Nature is thus used for many different purposes, which do not always go together. It is therefore necessary to adjust human activities so that they do not destroy the natural basis and thereby the basis for other activities.

The Baltic is a good example if this.The pollution of the Baltic threatens the fauna and thereby the basis for a commercial use of the Baltic. In the 1970'ies, it was clear for the countries around the Baltic that if the commercial basis for using the natural resources of the Baltic should not be destroyed permanently, it would be necessary to co-operate in order to reduce the pollution.The Baltic countries therefore established a cooperation across the political borders, with the common task of reducing pollution in the Baltic. This co-operation was named HELCOM and the Gdansk Commission, and its purpose was to assure a sustainable exploitation of live resources in the Baltic.

However, the Baltic is not a closed inland sea and the environmental situation is therefore also dependent on physical and environmental political activities outside the Baltic region. On the environmental political side, among others the North Sea Conference is an important institution for the further formulation of sea environmental policies that are also of importance for the Baltic.

New Field of Co-operation in the Baltic

After the Tjernobyl accident and the fall of the wall, new opportunities opened for expanding the co-operation, also within the field of environment, and for creating a better feeling of common identity in the Baltic region. A totally new scene of cooperation was created about the development of the Baltic region.

The co-operation is today much more comprehensive than earlier and undergoing a rapid political development. It may therefore be difficult to get and maintain an overview of actors and activities, which is a condition for being able to prioritise and plan the cooperation in a convenient way.

A myriad of new co-operations and many new actors (state, municipal and NGObased) have been formed in the wake of the market-economic development in Eastern Europe.The majority of co-operation forums have incorporated the thoughts behind sustainable development and many of them have used the trans-boundary environmental pollution as their point of departure.

The rapid development in the countries within selected fields of environment, and the continued missing efforts within other areas, for instance traffic and urban environment, as well as the limited capacity of the former countries of Eastern Europe for carrying out the necessary steps, necessitate a continued adjustment of the efforts, including the financial support within the field of environment to the former Eastern European countries. EU has created large funds for financing the continued development of the countries to the East. Many donors are supplying the financial support within the field of environment to the new countries in the eastern parts of the region, but no further details will be given in this booklet. On the other hand, the booklet will contain information about support programmes in connection with cooperation forums and concerning coordinating the co-operation regarding the support.

1.1 Danish environmental assistance to the Baltic region

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Central and Eastern European countries were left with substantial environmental problems.

Denmark was among the first countries to support environmental improvement in these countries. From 1991 until 2001 Denmark supported countries in Central and Eastern Europe with environmental assistance to the tune of DKK 3.6 billion or EUR 475 million. The overall objective of the activities undertaken was to:

	Protect the environment in the Central and Eastern European countries and to limit regional as well as global pollution.
	Help countries preparing to apply for EU membership.
	Contribute to political and economic development in an environmentally friendly manner.
	Promote Danish environmental knowledge and technology.

More than half of the EUR 475 million was donated to five countries in the Baltic Sea region, namely Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia and Poland.

Since 1995, the main focus of Danish environmental assistance has been to mediate EU accession for applicant countries from Central and Eastern Europe.

In the Baltic region, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland all belong to the group of applicant countries. Since then, fulfilling the EU's environmental protection legislation has therefore been a major guideline for the activities.

The effort has been successful.Today, all four applicant countries from the Baltic region meet EU requirements with respect to the environment. But it should also be mentioned that a recent analysis shows that 90% of the total cost of this enormous operation was actually financed by the Central and Eastern countries involved.

In terms of action areas, the objective of the Danish environmental assistance programme has largely concerned transboundary environmental problems such as water and air pollution.

Almost half of the support donated in the Baltic Sea region has for example been allocated to projects promoting mainly water quality.The other types of projects fall into the categories of waste, nature conservation, nuclear safety, soil and institutional strengthening.

Altogether, 275 projects have been carried out in the Baltic region within water quality improvement. Technical assistance projects have planned and identified water and wastewater projects in many cities including St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad, Vilnius,Warsaw and Wroclaw.

Cooperation and environmental benefits

During more than ten years of support, Denmark has donated EUR 475 million. This support has generated co-funding worth EUR 1.4 billion, which shows that the projects involve a great deal of cooperation with both recipient countries and international counterparts.

Naturally, the environmental benefits produced by 1,436 projects valued at a total of EUR 1.9 million cannot be quantified in numbers alone. Local, regional and global environmental benefits must also be taken into account - some can be quantified and others cannot.

Typically, global and regional environmental benefits stem from projects within energy, air and water, while local environmental benefits typically stem from projects related to soil pollution, waste treatment and nature conservation.

The Danish support to water projects in the Baltic region equals EUR 125 million, which has triggered co-funding worth EUR 375 million. One of the most important guidelines for this co-operation has been to help improve the Baltic Sea in accordance with monitoring carried out by the Helsinki Committee (HELCOM).

More than half of these projects involve rehabilitating existing wastewater treatment plants or constructing new treatment plants. As a result, estimations indicate that total nitrogen discharges have been reduced by more than 15,000 tonnes per year, with a total reduction in phosphorus discharges of more than 1,500 tonnes per year. These amounts correspond to the pollution load of approximately 3 million people.

These reductions have cost far less than similar reductions achieved in Denmark during the same period of time - the equivalent of one third, on average.

Poland is the largest cooperation partner in the Baltic region in terms of environmental support. Here cooperation has resulted in 46 investment projects in wastewater treatment plants. A recent evaluation of 14 of these plants indicated that it is money well spent, with discharges of organic matter reduced by between 91 and 98%, while nitrogen and phosphorus discharges were reduced by more than 80%. Figures that easily compare with most wastewater treatment plants in Denmark.

The environmental benefits of the Danish Polish cooperation are felt at a local level, with much healthier lakes and rivers, and at a regional level, with the Baltic Sea less likely to be affected by oxygen depletion from eutrophication from the different nutrients.

The support to wastewater treatment plants in the Baltic region has also resulted in a considerable reduction of heavy metal discharges.

Projects have also been executed within sewer rehabilitation and cleaner technology in industries that have demonstrated the efficiency of Danish methods and equipment in relation to environmental protection. Again, discharges of organic matter, nitrogen and heavy metals were significantly reduced in a number of industries.

Another important field of co-operation in the Baltic Sea covers monitoring the aquatic environment and controlling oil spills. Both of these activities have also received Danish support over the past 11 years.

Finally, a substantial part of the Danish aid has been distributed through the sectorintegrated environmental assistance originating from the Baltic Agenda 21 action plan. The regional action plan for the Baltic region is rooted in the global Agenda 21 adopted by UN member states in 1992 on a par with the Rio Declaration.

The activities were scheduled as partnerships between a range of Danish ministries and their counterparts in recipient countries. Most of the activities in the sectorintegrated environmental assistance were implemented in the field of energy.

2. Trans-Boundary Environmental Problems in the Baltic Region

2.1 The Broader Perspective

The European environmental cooperation has so far been part of the different organisation bodies (the EU, OECD, ECE, Nordic Co-operation) as part of these cooperation bodies' general political-financial cooperation. On the basis of this, the environmental co-operation has developed to be more specific and targeted at solving problems in the environment, where especially the trans-boundary pollution media - air and water - have attracted international attention. Due to the fact that the trans-boundary pollution and its effects migrate to many countries, an international common interest has come up in solving these problems, despite the differences that normally split the countries.

In April 1987, the World Commission for Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) published its report. This report contains a long series of recommendations and principles as to which modifications are necessary in order to make the development in all parts of the world more sustainable. Sustainable development means a development that meets the requirements of this generation without destroying the possibilities of meeting the requirements of future generations. This means that the economy, trade and industry, etc. must develop in accordance with the natural basis of the individual parts of the world, countries or regions.

The report concentrated on the fact that the environmental problems are to a greater extent of trans-boundary and global nature and that sustainable deve-lopment demands a broad international cooperation. The need for economic and social development for the present and future generations in the North and the South should be seen in close connection with the need for protecting environmental and natural resources.

In continuation of the Brundtland Report, the UN held a global conference about Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. At this conference, the following ideas were widely accepted:

	Sustainable development is an overall target for social development
	Sustainable development includes an environmental, economic and social dimension
	Sustainable development does not only demand national efforts, but efforts on all levels - from the global level to the local level, at the grassroots level and at consumer and industry level
	Sustainable development requires international cooperation

The result of the conference was a declaration containing a number of principles for sustainable development and an Agenda 21, which is a global agenda for sustainable development in the 21st century. Also a UN commission for sustainable development was established, the objective of which is to co-ordinate and monitor the implementation of Agenda 21.

Five years after the Conference in Rio, the UN held in 1997 a special General Assembly about environment and development (UNGASS). At this meeting, the heads of state agreed on the framework for the continued implementation of Agenda 21. The conclusion was that even if we have seen some progress in a number of fields, the situation of our World has worsened since 1992. The necessity of integrating environmental, social and economic objectives and developing integrated policies for the individual sectors was stressed. The member countries were urged to develop national strategies for sustainable development no later than year 2002. The general conclusion was that sustainable development can only be realised through continuation and strengthening of the efforts in all countries, and Agenda 21 should continue to be the basis for national and international efforts.

A comprehensive co-operation is taking place in the countries around the Baltic in order to encourage sustainable development. A number of the Baltic countries are developing national and local strategies for sustainable development and forming commissions for sustainable development. Hereto comes that a number of cities have declared objectives for sustainability.

In 1998, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs in the Baltic Region approved a regional action plan for the development in seven economically and environmentally impor-tant sectors, named Baltic Agenda 21. The purpose of this is to further a regional cooperation to improve the living and wor-king conditions of the population on a sustainable basis. An important element of the agenda is to further the sectorial integration, i.e. incorporate the environ-mental consideration into the work of the various sectors. The environmental consideration should be included into the decisions on the same level as economic and social considerations, if the objective of sustainable development is to be fulfilled. The political responsibility of implementing the agenda within their own sector lies with the sectors themselves.

In 1992, the Baltic Council was set up. All countries surrounding the Baltic as well as the European Commission are members. The purpose of the council is to further the democratic and economic development in the region. The Council functions as an umbrella organisation for a number of sub-regional actors, such as the Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Co-operation, the Union of Baltic Cities, etc. In 1996, the Council approved a series of action programmes, including a programme for the environment in the Baltic, and the followup on the environmental programme lies with HELCOM.

Except for Russia, all of the Eastern European countries around the Baltic have applied for accession to the EU. Through membership of the EU, the countries will be able to contribute to the process of integration of environment in the sector policies of the community (in accordance with the new Treaty of Amsterdam and the Cardiff Process). In the EU, the sectors of agriculture, energy and transport have so far been selected to prepare a strategy of how the sectors are going to integrate environment and sustainable development.

In order to strengthen the common identity and the co-operation with among others the remaining countries of Europe, Finland has taken the initiative that the Baltic countries will formulate a Northern Dimension themselves. This can be the point of departure for special common requirements in connection with international cooperation and for co-ordination of the support to the new countries of the region.

2.2 The Way to a sustainable Development, based on the Pollution Phenomena

Air and water pollution will continuously be the way in which we are confronted with the trans-boundary pollution problems. There is therefore good reason to use the various pollution phenomena, the way they are presented to day, as a point of departure.

When saying 'pollution', we normally think of the pollution created by humans. However, nature is not 'clean' in itself. Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and sandstorms also contribute to the pollution by a number of well-known substances. Therefore, the appearance of a well-known substance is only pollution when it is found in inconvenient places and in inconvenient quantities and thereby has undesirable effects, for instance impact on the health or wellbeing of human beings, decompo-sition of materials, harm to animals and vegetation, or deterioration of human beings' opportunities to use the resources of nature.

The substances that are let out from a source of pollution will migrate to the surroundings. A possible outlet may cause pollution in many different places depending on the migration, which again depends on wind or water flows and on geographic conditions. Conversely, the pollution found in a certain place may originate from many different sources. It is of great importance when assessing both effects and interventions against the pollution that the pollution often migrates through the different media of pollution, for instance air pollution causes direct impact on humans, animals, plants and materials, but it also influences soil and water and causes damages here.

A better understanding of the pollution media and the migration of the pollution is an important first step towards prevention and minimisation of the pollution, and towards implementation of the principles for a sustainable development.Today, the knowledge of 'single let-outs' especially from industrial sources, agriculture, transport, etc. is rather comprehensive, and so far a long series of initiatives have been taken to reduce this type of pollution.

Our knowledge about the connection between the pollution and the activities/behaviour of human beings during a lifetime is, however, still quite limited. Therefore Agenda 21 also points out the production and consumption pattern as being the most important reason for the continued deterioration of global environ-ment - especially in the industrialised countries. An important condition for ob-taining a sustainable development is there-fore major modifications of the present production and consumption patterns.To be able to implement the necessary modifi-cations, a detailed knowledge about the connection between behaviour, production and pollution is required.

Since an important part of the environmental problems are related to the increased consumption of products, there is an increasing need for reducing the impact on environment from the large number of products that we produce, export, import, consume and throw away. In other words, it is important to look at the composition of the environmental impact of the products in their entire life cycle on order to be able to prioritise the efforts in this way and give the consumer a possibility on the one hand to select the products that have least impact on the environment, on the other hand to modify their consumption pattern. In each individual part of the life cycle of the product, it is necessary to have easy access to reliable information about the environmental qualities of the products and the substances. For industry, also information about cleaner technologies is important. In this connection, integration of environmental consideration in the sectors is a central tool, since it is important that the different sectors integrate the regard to environment, for instance in the product-related support systems of the sectors. A large part of the products is either imported or exported. This means that the products are today often produced in another place than where they are used and disposed of.To take the products to the place of consumption, they are transported a long way. The transport is assured either by lorries, train, ship or plane. In order to obtain flexibility and fast distribution at the door of the consumer, an increasing number of products are transported by lorry and by plane over a long distance. These types of transport are today those having biggest impact on the environment.

Production, consumption, disposal and transport of products give a diversified pollution - both in the country of production and in the countries that consume and dispose of the products. The transport of products contributes to noise and air pollution in the transit countries and to the greenhouse effect. International commerce therefore contributes to the transboundary pollution. Increasing international commerce is on the political agenda as a means of growth and development. However, it will be necessary to do something about the negative impact on the environment that follows, and here development and sale of cleaner products are essential factors. In this connection, EU's inner market and WTO are in focus.

Also in the Baltic Region, the development goes towards intensified trade between the countries. Experience shows that countries, which are close to each other geographically also, do much trade with each other. In fact, the three Baltic countries have also formed an area of free trade, which has led to relatively intensified trade. The countries of Eastern Europe are generally redirecting their trade towards the western countries, among others through the coming memberships of the EU. Increased trade between the countries lays more pressure on transport routes, etc. and the countries surrounding the Baltic have a common interest in developing the infrastructure. The Baltic is an important common transport route of the region and the development of port facilities, airports, railways, etc. should be co-ordinated with a view to using the resources as well as possible and causing the least possible environmental impact. This requires a better co-operation within the field of transport, based on the principles of sustainable development.

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Map 2.3.1
Bathymetry of the Baltic Sea

2.3 The Baltic

The Baltic is one of the largest areas of brackish water in the world. In the centre of the sea, the Baltic is almost fresh, whereas at the uttermost end towards the Skagerrak, it is almost oceanic. At intervals of a few years, there are inflows of salt bilge water over the thresholds of the Danish seas. Hereby oxygen-containing water flows into the Baltic, which gives new opportunities for flora and fauna to colonise the seabed. The latest major renewals of the bilge water took place in 1993 and to a minor extent in 1994. In 1995 and 1996, the conditions were dominated by a low oxygen content in the lower parts of the Baltic. The salt water inflow in the autumn of 1997 only led to a short increase of the oxygen concentrations, when the water was hot due to the very hot summer and the oxygen consumption therefore correspondingly high. The average retention time of the water in the Baltic is approx. 35 years. The long average retention time of the water has the consequence that especially substances that are not easily decomposable, and which at the same time are NO_xious to the environment, may be accumulated in the Baltic.

The average water depth in the Baltic is 52 m, but at some places the depth may be down to 459 m. The Baltic has the shape of a long, flat basin with a few deep areas (cf. map 2.3.1). The deep areas of the Baltic are normally oxygen-free and thereby almost without life, since only some bacteria are able to live under oxygen-free conditions. The low oxygen content is a natural phenomenon, which is intensified by the addition of nutrient salts, which are results of human activities. The nutrient salts cause eutrophication, followed by a risk of oxygen depletion.

The area of water run-off to the Baltic covers approx. 1,745,000 km2, with a population of approx. 380 million people. The basic figures for the countries surrounding the Baltic are presented in Table 2.3.1.

Map 2.3.2 on the next page shows how the water run-off area is distributed on the individual countries. The entire water runoff from Poland ends in the Baltic, whereas only a limited part of the water runoff from Norway ends here.

Table 2.3.1
Basic figures for countries in the Baltic Sea region.

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Map 2.3.2
The water run-off area of the Baltic Sea

2.4 Pollution of Sea and Water Environment

2.4.1 General Impact on the Water Environment

The substances polluting the water can be divided into two groups; the substances that use oxygen and which are part of the ecological circle, and the substances which - above a certain level - have acute or chronic NO_xious impacts on plants, animals and human beings. These are heavy metals, pesticides, other chlorinated hydrocarbons (PCB), and other NO_xious, slowly decomposable and/or bioaccummulating poisons.

The substances that pollute the sea and water environment originate from many different sources. The sources can often be divided into:

Point sources:

	Household wastewater and outlets from urban wastewater treatment plants
	Agriculture (stocks of natural manure, fertiliser, pesticides)
	Industry (wastewater and air pollution)
	Fish farms
	Water reservoirs
	Waste deposits and landfills
	Energy and heat production as well as combustion of waste

Non-point sources:

	Run-off from agricultural soil
	Transport (air pollution)
	Scattered houses

Pollution of waters, coastal zones, water courses and lakes takes place by polluting substances being washed out from the fields or led to fresh and marine areas, for instance together with the wastewater. Part of the pollution, primarily nitrogen, may also be added through the air in the form of rain or particles settling on the water surface.

When large quantities of nitrogen are added, for instance through washout from the fields, the number of plankton algae is strongly increased. Hereby the risks of oxygen depletion are also increased, because plankton algae use oxygen when they die and rot. When big quantities of algae die and sediment, the oxygen consumption will be so huge that large waters are destroyed. The growth of plankton algae and other plants are during a large part of the year controlled by the quantity of nitrogen and the sea temperature.

The concentration of oxygen in the water is of vital importance for a varied fauna. If the oxygen content falls below 4 mg per litre, there will be a lack of oxygen. Mobile bottom-living fauna such as fish will seek away, whereas the other parts of the bottom living fauna will not thrive. If the oxygen content falls further below 2 mg per litre, there is a risk that areas without oxygen will develop at the bottom. Hereby hydrogen sulphide will be released, which is mortal for fauna and flora.We have for instance seen many cases of oxygen depletion in the Danish waters.

Besides, water courses and wetlands are exposed to tremendous physical impacts from among others damming with a view to water catchment and hydroelectricity, deepening, straightening out and draining as well as reduction of forests and wetlands, all factors that have impact on the fauna and flora.

2.4.2 Pollution of Sea and Water Environment in the Baltic

The water pollution of the Baltic originates from various sources from land and from water run-off from rivers, lakes, etc. The most important sources of pollution do not differ from the above mentioned sources of pollution.

Aerobic Substances

The total outlet of aerobic organic substances to the Baltic is 1.14 million tons. The distribution on the individual countries appears from graph 2.4.1. Of the overall load, 0.11 million tons originate from urban wastewater, which is led directly into the Baltic, 0.10 million originate from direct discharges of industrial wastewater. The remaining part, which is the biggest, originates from rivers and watercourses.

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Graph 2.4.1
BOD7-load from rivers and direct discharges

HELCOM has estimated that the outlet of aerobic substances has been reduced by 80% in the period from 1991-92 to 1995. The aerobic substances only have impact on flora and fauna in areas of the Baltic in which very huge quantities are discharged into sensible coastal waters.

Map 2.4.1
Nitrate and phosphate in the Baltic Sea

Nitrogen and Phosphorous

For many years, huge quantities of nutrient salts (nitrogen and phosphorous) have been let out into the Baltic from the catchment area and the atmosphere.The concentration of nitrogen and phosphorous is shown in graph 2.4.1. This has caused increased production of plant plankton. In the major parts of the Baltic, the growth of algae is reduced by the lack of nitrogen and therefore supplies of nitrogen quickly results in increased growth of algae. However, the presence of phosphorous reduces the growth of algae in the Gulf of Bothnia, in parts of the Bothnian Sea and in the Gulf of Riga as well as in some local areas.

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Graph 2.4.2
Land based nitrogen load on the Baltic Sea

Nitrogen pollution originates from wastewater, air pollution and leaching from cultivated land, forests and nature areas.

The land-based pollution is widely influenced by the precipitation pattern the year in question, because the precipitationcontrolled leaching of nitrogen from cultivated and non-cultivated areas represent the major part of the addition of nitrogen. It is therefore hard to see clear tendencies of development. The land-based nitrogen load on the Baltic is shown in graph 2.4.2. In 1995, the total load of nitrogen from land was 760,000 tons. Because the majority of the nitrogen originates from nonpoint sources (precipitation, etc.) it is not possible to control the quantity of nitrogen supplies from the non-point sources, which may cause problems at the wastewater treatment plants. Therefore the same positive tendency of a reduction of the nitrogen load can not be seen, which is the case for organic material and phosphorous. Phosphorous primarily originates from point sources, which are more easily controlled.

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Graph 2.4.3
Phosforous load from the countries around the Baltic Sea

The nitrogen load from the air (precipitation etc.) was 300,000 tons in 1995. HELCOM estimates that in the 10-year period from 1986 to 1995, there has been a reduction of the atmospheric contribution of nitrogen of approx. 25%, primarily as a consequence of reduced air pollution. Based on model predictions, HELCOM has assessed that 65% of the atmospheric load originates from the countries surrounding the Baltic, whereas the remaining 35% originate from countries such as Great Britain, France, The Netherlands, and Czech Republic.

The phosphor load of the Baltic and the lakes in the catchment of the Baltic area is primarily due to wastewater discharges. An amelioration of the treatment of urban wastewater has reduced the outlet of phosphorous.

HELCOM estimates that the phosphorous outlet has been reduced by 50% in the period 1991-1992 to 1995. Outlet of phosphorous is the most important threat to the environmental quality of the lakes, and it is estimated that there is a need for increased efforts to reduce the phosphorous load on the most vulnerable lakes. The phosphorous load from the countries around the Baltic and the development of the load in 1995 are shown in graph 2.4.3.

Heavy Metals

Pollution by heavy metals (primarily mercury, lead and cadmium) originates from urban wastewater, industrial wastewater, and non-point sources, such as cadmium leaching from cultivated soil. Air pollution also contributes to pollution by heavy metals, among others by lead from petrol exhaust gasses. Figure 2.4.1 shows HELCOM's estimate of the heavy metals discharge into the Baltic in 1995. However, data are missing for Denmark and from rivers in Latvia (only data on mercury) and Russia (only data on mercury and cadmium). All data for Estonia are from 1994.

Surveys from the environmental survey programme of the Helsinki Commission indicate that the main part of the land-based load of heavy metals into the Baltic (approx. 90%) originates from wastewater outlet and nonpoint sources into the rivers. The remaining 10% originate from the direct outlet into the Baltic of urban and industrial wastewater. Some heavy metals are dissolved (for instance cadmium) and are therefore carried a long way in the water column. Others (for instance mercury) are particle-bound and are more quickly bound to the bottomsediment. Consequently, a great part of the particle bound heavy metals are retained in the bottom sediment in watercourses and lakes. The total discharge of heavy metals is thus higher than the one measured.

Table 2.4.1
Heavy metal discharge into the Baltic Sea 1995

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Map 2.4.2
Cadmium in fish

Analyses show that the content of cadmium and copper in water has been reduced by 6-7% annually since the 1980'ies. The content of heavy metals, especially cadmium, in fish does, however, not decrease correspondingly, as can be seen from map 2.4.2. This can possibly be explained from physiological conditions, which influence the absorption of heavy metals in fish.

The assessments of the heavy metals impact from the air are subject to great uncertainties. The lead load is, as an average for the years 1991-94, estimated at approx. 600 tons annually, i.e. in the same order as the land-based load. This means that there has been a reduction of the atmospheric lead load of the Baltic by 60%, when comparing the period 1986-90 with the period 1991-95. The reduction of the atmospheric lead load of the Baltic is partly due to a remarkable reduction of the use of lead-containing petrol from 47% of the petrol consumption in 1989 to 12% in 1995, and partly that a number of industries in the countries subject to conversion have been closed or have reduced their production significantly. For cadmium, the figures regarding load on the Baltic from the air are approx. 25 tons, or almost equivalent to the land-based load.

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Map 2.4.3
Pesticides

In total, it is estimated that there is a certain reduction of the supply of heavy metals from the air and in the content of metals in the seawater. However, data are missing, as well as an understanding of the mechanisms that control the decomposition of heavy metals.

Pesticides and other Toxic Substances

No data are available for discharge of pesticides and other toxic substances into the Baltic.

However, there has been a clear reduction of the concentrations of PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) and DDT in the musculature of herrings in the period 1978 to 1993, cf. map 2.4.3. This is due to the fact that the discharge of organic halogen compounds from for instance the paper pulp industry has been reduced by almost 90% since 1987. Despite this, the concentrations were still many times higher in the Baltic in 1993 than in the open parts of the North Sea and the Atlantic.

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Graph 2.4.4
Nesting success of the fish hawk in the Baltic region

In 1970, it was discovered that DDT and to some extent PCB caused reductions of the thickness of egg-shells for birds living from fish and mussels in the Baltic, for instance the fish hawk. This caused reproduction problems for certain species of birds. However, since the drastic reduction in the 1950'ies, the fish hawk has come back and a huge increase in the number of brooding birds has been registered, as appears from graph 2.4.4.

The earlier catastrophic reduction in the number of seals in the Baltic now seems to have changed and the population is slowly increased in number, for instance the number of grey seals has increased considerably in the northern parts of the Baltic since the mid-80'ies. However, the level of organic chlorinated solvents is still very high in seals coming from the Baltic, even if the Baltic countries have agreed to reduce the discharge of this type of substances.

Algae

In the Baltic, a boom in the growth of bluegreen algae takes place every year, and these are often toxic. In the summer of 1997, the greatest appearance of a toxic blue-green alga (Nodularia) so far was observed in Danish waters. Because of the hot water and the modest wind, the algae had in some periods optimum conditions and spread far into the Kattegat. In 1998, the biggest quantity of plant plankton for 10 years was measured in the Gulf of Riga.

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Graph 2.4.5
Number of grey seacls in various parts of the Baltic Sea
  

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Map 2.4.4
Ship-based oil transport 1995

Radioactive Substances

Radioactive substances are found naturally in the Baltic and are added from human activities. The most important substances in the Baltic are Caesium-137 (Cs137) and Strontium-90 (Sr90).

Since the accident at Tjernobyl in 1986, the levels of radioactive substances in seawater, flora and fauna in the Baltic have been decreasing, especially for Cs137. The concentrations are in general low, but still 10 times higher than the concentrations in the North Sea, and this makes the Baltic one of the most radioactively polluted waters in the World (cf. Chapter 2.6).

Oil Spill

The ship traffic in the Baltic is intensive, and despite high-technology navigation systems it is difficult to navigate in the area, which increases the risk of accidents. The important oil ports are found in Latvia (Ventspils), Finland (Porvoo) and in the Danish straits. If all extension plans for the Baltic Area are implemented, a doubling of the quantity of oil transport is foreseen. Offshore oil and gas investigations are today limited to a few places near Germany and Poland.

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Map 2.4.5
Oil spillages observed by natural surveillance flights

The ship-based oil transport in the Baltic is shown on map 2.4.4. The number of observed oil outlets from ships in 1996 appears from map 2.4.5 and has been increasing during late years. Major oil spills (>225 tons) are on the average found 3 times a year and cause great damage on coasts and sea birds. However, the main problem concerning the oil pollution in the Baltic concerns the land-based outlet, which mainly takes place through drains. This quantity is estimated at 20,000- 70,000 tons annually.

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Map 2.4.6
Organic matter in European rivers

The Quality of Habitats

More than 80% of all habitats along the coasts of the Baltic are exposed to impacts. The threatened habitats are primarily dune areas and wetlands and areas below the salt metalimnion. Construction works, dredging and dumping, some types of fishing, coastal erosion and tourism, threatens the environment.

Rivers

Map 2.4.6 shows the content of aerobic substances in a number of watercourses around the Baltic. The figure shows the biological oxygen consumption (BOD5 and BOD7) and the chemical oxygen consumption (COD), depending on which data are available. It appears from the map that there are great differences in the conditions of the watercourses. The differences reflect the population density compared to the water flow of the watercourses and the extension of the biological purification of the wastewater. Of the watercourses for which measurements are available, the Polish and Lithuanian water courses are the most contaminated. The Latvian, Estonian and Danish water courses are in an intermediary category, whereas the Swedish and Finnish are very clean.

The impact of letting out environmental poisons in watercourses is especially connected to point sources such as industries, storages of environmental poisons, and waste deposits.

However, there is a tendency of amelioration, especially in the most contaminated rivers. This is due to the fact that a number of environmentally contaminating industries in Poland and the Baltic countries have been closed, or that they only produce a minor part of their capacity, but it is also due to improved wastewater purification. These improvements can be expected to continue concurrently with the implementation of the directive on purification of urban wastewater (91/271/EØF) and the new framework directive for EU's efforts within the water area.

Physical interventions, the purpose of which is to improve the drainage capabilities, and interventions reducing the number of wetlands and forests, are of greatest importance in densely populated areas and intensively cultivated areas with rich soil. Impoundments with a view to produce hydro-electricity are mostly widespread in areas in which the fall of the rivers is high and where the water level is high.

Lakes

Map 2.4.7 shows the phosphorous content in a minor selection of the lakes around the Baltic. As can be seen, there is a great difference in the conditions of the lakes. These differences reflect the population density in the catchment area of the lakes, the extension of farming, the loss of phosphorous from the cultivated land, and finally the extent to which phosphorous is removed from the wastewater. The Danish and Polish lakes are most contaminated, the lakes in the Baltic countries are found in an intermediary category, whereas the lakes in Sweden and Finland are cleanest.

The extent to which environmental surveys have been carried out concerning the impact of environmental poisons on the flora and fauna in lakes is rather limited and does not allow a general assessment.

The impact of water catchment on the environmental quality of lakes is limited and primarily related to lakes located in the areas where water catchment takes place for major urban communities.

It seems that the environmental condition of the lakes has been slightly improved, but efforts are still needed in order to improve the environmental conditions of a number of lakes. Efforts are especially needed to protect lakes with a very high environmental quality (very oligotrophic) against phosphorous leaching from cultivated areas and forests. Protection and restoration of wet areas will play an important and positive part. EU's framework directive will form a good basis for protecting and restoring the environmental condition in the lakes. On the other hand, the minimum requirements of the directive concerning purification of urban wastewater are estimated to be insufficient to assure that the environmental quality of the lakes is not reduced.

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Map 2.4.7
Phosforous concentrations in European lakes and reservoirs

2.5 Air Pollution

2.5.1 Air Pollution in General

A great number of different substances may cause air pollution. These substances are emitted from many different sources and have different impacts.

Some impacts are local and immediate; others may only appear after many years and perhaps a long distance from the source. Roughly, the sources may be divided into the following categories:

	Means of transport
	Heating - both separate oil burners and district heating systems
	Electricity production
	Combustion of waste
	Industry
	Agriculture

An assessment of the outlets taking place from the various sources only partly reflects the environmental impact from our different activities. Surplus heat from production of electricity is thus often used for heating (combined heat and power plants). Electric trains cause almost no air pollution, but so does the production of the required electricity, etc.

Since air pollution is spread by the wind and deposited both dry and washed out by the rain, there will be no unambiguous connection in a given place between outlet (emission) and the concentration in the surrounding air (immission - cf. explanation on the following page).There is a clear connection between emission and immission when the outlets take place at a low level and in densely populated and heavily trafficked streets, such as for instance pollution from cars. This is due to poor dilution of the emitted pollution. The connection is smaller for instance power plants with a high stack. Of course, a power plant will have impact on the nearby surroundings, but the largest part of the pollution will be carried a long distance away and to a large extent be diluted before it touches the soil and is deposited.

The weather and climate of a given country, as well as the location of the sources, will therefore be of great importance for the relation between pollution outlet and pollution load. In this connection, Denmark takes up a special position. Denmark is divided by great areas of water, which in them provide a "dilution" of the outlets. The biggest cities, and thereby the biggest sources of pollution, are primarily located along the coasts - the majority are even located on the eastern coasts. This - connected with a wind primarily coming from the west - means that a great part of the pollution is blown out of the country. The majority of the Danish emissions of sulphur oxides (SO_x) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) are in fact exported to other countries. On the other hand, we receive contributions from abroad.

All pollution, which is sent out into the atmosphere, is of course sooner or later deposited again. Denmark therefore "exports" pollution - primarily to the east - i.e. the Baltic region. Furthermore, part of the pollution will be deposited on water areas. A great part of the nitrogen pollution of Danish waters therefore comes through the air.

How far air pollution can be transported depends on the so-called "life-time", which indicates for how long the pollution stays in the air. Typical pollution, such as sulphur and nitrogen compounds - has life times of a few nights and days and can be transported some thousands of kilometres. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and for instance chlorine-flour carbons have life times of several years and can be transported all over the world.

Sulphur Compounds

Sulphur pollution is primarily due to the use of fossil fuels, i.e. carbon, oil and gas products, which contain sulphur. In connection with the incineration, the sulphur also burns and gas sulphur dioxide is formed. Some of the sulphur dioxide is deposited immediately, some is transferred into sulphate after a few days, which deposits on particles, which are thereupon precipitated as "acid precipitation" or deposited as dry particles (cf. explanation).

In urban areas, part of the sulphur pollution that exists in the air comes from sources with a low stack height, typically minor heating plants. Similar contributions come from higher sources, i.e. district heating plants, power plants, etc., whereas the remaining part is due to longdistance transport from abroad.

Nitrogen Compounds

The major part of the air pollution by nitrogen compounds is due to earlier use of fossil fuel, but now the transport sector is the biggest source of pollution together with ammonia emissions from the intensified animal husbandry.

In urban areas, the pollution from car traffic often reaches such levels that it may cause nuisance to exposed parts of the population, for instance asthmatics. Longterm impact can not be excluded either. On a long-term basis, the introduction of catalytic converters for cars will result in an important reduction of urban pollution, unless we will experience a simultaneous increase of the quantity of traffic.

The far-transported nitrogen pollution comes to a huge extent from the power plants. It is possible to reduce this pollution by means of so-called low NO_xburners and smoke purification equipment.

In nature areas, the nitrogen pollution contributes to the acidification. Nitrogen compounds (including ammonia) are not only pollution, they are also plant nutrients. This means that the pollution does at the same time have an enriching effect on the soil. This modifies the growth conditions and moves the balance between various plants. This may have the result that nature areas worth preserving, such as heather-clad heath, are transformed into grassheath.

In water areas, this extra supply of nutrients leads to growth of algae, which may result in deoxygenation, which again may result in the death of fish. The nutrients may also come from wastewater and agricultural leaching.

Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide

In connection with incineration of fossil fuel and other types of fuel, such as wood and straw, a number of compounds of carbon and oxygen are formed. In case of incomplete incineration, carbon monoxide (CO) is formed, which is a toxic gas. An important source is car traffic, but the introduction of catalyst converters has resulted in a huge reduction of the outlet, because carbon monoxide is transformed into carbon dioxide.

At normal incineration, carbon dioxide (CO-₂) is formed, which is a nontoxic compound. However, this compound has some quite different impacts, since it is the most important of the so-called "greenhouse gasses", which cause the "greenhouse effect" (see explanation).

Hydro-carbons

In connection with incomplete combustion of fuel in motors, a large number of hydrocarbons are emitted, of which several are known to be carcinogenic. Furthermore, some compounds are formed which are perhaps not directly hazardous to health, but troublesome because they cause a bad odour or make ones eyes smart. This situation is partly removed by the introduction of catalyst converters in cars. Hydrocarbons are also emitted from various chemical industries and in connection with use of solvents.

Photo-chemical Oxidants, Ozone

When nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds are exposed to sunlight, they may react and form "photo-chemical oxidants", of which the most important one is ozone - a very reactive type of oxygen, which is hazardous to health. The photochemical air pollution has become a problem in many industrialised countries. The limit values for protection of human health and the vegetation are thus often passed during the summer half-year in areas of Europe.

Substances decomposing the Ozone Layer

However, ozone also plays a quite different role in the form of a thin layer at a height of 20-35 km above ground. This ozone, which chemically is identical to the ozone found at the soil surface, is not indispensable. On the one hand because it protects the earth against too strong ultra-violet radiation from the sun, on the other hand because it is of importance for the energy balance of the earth.

There exist a number of substances that decompose the ozone layer. This will among others cause an increased occurrence of skin cancer, because the ultraviolet radiation of the sun more easily can pass a decomposed ozone layer.The ozone layer is decomposed by halons, which have primarily been used in fire extinction equipment, tetra-chloromethane, and 1.1.1. trichloromethane, which has been used as a solvent and for laboratory analyses, HBFCs, which have not been so intensively used in the northern countries, the pesticide of methyde-bromide and the compounds HCFC and CFC, which have to a wide extent been used for production of foam plastic in cooling systems and propellant in spray cans. Besides, CFC is a gas, which contributes to the before mentioned "green-house effect" (see explanation).

Heavy Metals

Even if the major part of the air pollution is emitted as gasses, there is also some pollution, which is emitted as particles, for instance soot or ash particles. Often the air pollution will affect the health of humans, and in this connection it is not so much the particles themselves that are toxic, but rather the substances which settle on their surface. Small particles cause the biggest risk because they more easily settle in the lungs, and because they have a relatively big surface on which toxic substances such as heavy metals may settle. Substances and heavy metals that settle on particles are for instance lead, sulphur, vanadium and nickel. The lead, which is found in the atmosphere primarily, originates from the use of lead-based additives in car petrol. Sulphur, vanadium and nickel to a high extent come from incineration of oil and carbon.

Other examples of heavy metals that are hazardous to health are cadmium and mercury. Cadmium primarily migrates in environment through the use of phosphate fertiliser and by emission from waste incineration and combustion of fossil fuels.

Mercury is among others emitted from waste incineration plants and crematories from tooth fillings made of mercurycontaining materials.

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Graph 2.5.1
Emissios of SO_x in the Baltic region - 1988,1995.

2.5.2 Air Pollution in the Baltic Region

Air pollution in the Baltic Region originates from sources in the region and from "imported" air pollution.

The most important sources and types of pollution in the Baltic area do not differ from those mentioned above. On the other hand, the sources of pollution differ from one country to the other. For instance, Sweden and Norway do not have any important emission from electricity production, since the large majority of the electricity production in Norway is based on water power, and in Sweden it is based on water power and nuclear power. The increased number of private cars and the volume of lorry transport, as well as the type of industry are also crucial factors to the emission from a country.

As in other industrialised countries, SO_x and NO_x are the primary substances causing air pollution in the Baltic Region. Therefore, the largest number of measurements and calculations are found for the outlet of these two substances. By means of data from the European Air Pollution Cooperation (EMEP), it is possible to measure the emission of SO_x and NO_x from the countries of the Baltic Region. The result is shown in the graphs 2.5.1 and 2.5.2. As can be seen, there is a big difference between the quantity led out in Germany, which is the most important emitter of both SO_x and NO_x, and the quantity led out from Latvia, which emits the smallest quantity of both SO_x and NO_x. Unfortunately, the newest figures available are from 1995. This is due to the profound but slow data treatment, which is carried out in the individual countries and in the EMEP Organisation itself. It is estimated that figures from 1998 will show the same distribution of outlets between the countries. EMEP is described in Chapter 3.2.5 on the Geneva Convention.

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Graph 2.5.2
Emissions of NO_x in the Baltic region -1988,1995..

It appears from the graphs that there has been a reduction of the air pollution in the Baltic area from 1988 to 1995. This is also shown in graph 2.5.3. It appears that the Eastern European countries represent the biggest reduction of the air pollution. Part of this reduction is due to closing-down of industries rather than an efficient effort to reduce the outlets. It is estimated that figures from 1998 will show further reduction of the air pollution.

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Graph 2.5.3
Percentage reduction of SO_x- og NO_x-emissions from the Baltic region from 1988 to 1995.
     

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Graph 2.5.4
SO_x-emissions, 1988, 1995.

As can be seen from graph 2.5.3, there are big varieties in the reduction of NO_x from 1998 to 1995. The reduction of NO_x emission is low in the northern countries, which can be explained by the increasing traffic load. Contrary to this, the reduction of NO_x has been high in the Baltic countries, which is due to the general decrease of industrial production.

In graphs 2.5.4 and 2.5.5, the emissions of SO_x and NO_x are indicated in annual emission per inhabitant. Hereby, the big varieties between the population numbers of the countries of the Baltic region are taken into account.

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Graph 2.5.5
NO_x-emissions, 1988, 1995.
   

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Map 2.5.1
Emissions of sulphur in 1995.

It appears from graph 2.5.4 that the SO_x emission per inhabitant is biggest in the Eastern European countries. This is primarily due to the fact that the energy production of these countries is based on fuel with a low calorific value and a high sulphur content. Besides, flue-gas purification equipment is only used to a limited extent.

Graph 2.5.5 shows that the NO_x outlet per inhabitant is relatively high from the northern countries. The explanation hereof is most probably a relatively high traffic load on land, in the sea and in the air.

Of course, the emissions of SO and NO vary within the borders of the individual countries, depending on the location of the sources. Maps 2.5.1 shows the emission of sulphur per habitant in tons annually in the Baltic region in squares of 50 x 50 km. Not surprisingly, a high emission is seen around the industrial areas and the large cities, especially in the CentralEuropean part of the Baltic Region.

Correspondingly, map 2.5.2 shows the emission of nitrogen (nitrogen oxides and ammonia). It can be seen that the Baltic Region has several areas of nitrogen emissions between 1000 and 5000 tons annually than areas with sulphur emissions between 1000 and 5000 tons annually.

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Map 2.5.2
NO_x og NH₃ emissions in 1995.

2.5.3 Transport of Air Pollution

As earlier described, the spreading of air pollution depends on the meteorological conditions, especially the wind conditions. The Baltic region is characterised by primarily west and southwest winds. This appears from map 2.5.3. The air pollution which comes to the region "from outside" thus primarily comes from Great Britain and Northeast Europe.

Furthermore, an import/export takes place among the countries of the Baltic Region. This import/export depends on the geographic location and meteorological conditions of the country, as well as on the emissions of the country and the neighbour countries.

The below table shows which import and export of air pollution takes place in the Baltic Region.

It appears from Table 2.5.1 that Sweden, Norway, Finland, Latvia, and Belarus are importers of SO_x. Sweden and Norway are the biggest importers. These countries have a relatively low emission of SO_x, and at the same time they are located in the direction of the wind from the large emission producers (Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, and Ukraine). The large emission producers are also the largest exporters of SO_x.

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Map 2.5.3
Prevailing wind directions and atmospheric fronts over Europe and the North Alantic.
    

Table 2.5.1
Average imports and exports of SO_x, from 1988 to 1995. Countries are listed accoding to decrease in imports.

*: The part of Russia which is included in the EMEP area
   

Table 2.5.2
Average imports and exports of NO_x, from 1988 to 1995. Countries are listed according to decrease in imports.

*: The part of Russia which is included in the EMEP area

An almost identical picture is shown in Table 2.5.2 for NO_x import/export, except for Denmark, which is one of the largest exporters of NO_x. This corresponds with Denmark's relatively high emission of NO_x, as well as the geographic location and meteorological conditions of the country.

Especially in Sweden, Norway and Finland, the import of sulphur through the air gives problems with acidification of lakes and forests.The effect of the acid precipitation is remarkable in these countries, since the natural content of lime in the soil is very limited. The lime neutralises the acid precipitation and thereby limits the effect. In this connection, Denmark has the advantage of having a large lime content in the soil. More details on the effect of acid precipitation are given later in this chapter.

2.5.4 Immission in the Baltic Region

Map 2.5.4 shows the daily SO2 concentration from January 1987 for the whole of Europe. As can be seen, the highest concentrations are found in Central Europe.

Among the countries in the Baltic Region, especially high concentrations are found in Germany (more than 60 g/m³ SO₂). This is due to the high concentration of industries in Germany. For comparison, the EU's limit value for SO2 in the air is 100 g/m³ over a 24-hour period. The other countries in the Baltic Region have three levels, which are less than half of the level in Germany and thus far from the limit value. Since the SO2 emission in the Baltic Region has moreover decreased since 1987, it is estimated that the immission has also decreased and thus has become far lower. In conclusion, SO2 immission does not represent a considerable regional environmental problem in the Baltic region. However, there may be local transgressions of the limit value, especially in connection with unfavourable meteorological conditions such as missing or strongly reduced air circulation.

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Map 2.5.4
Daily SO₂ concentration field

2.5.5 Deposition in the Baltic Region

Air pollution not only affects health and nature while it exists in the air, but also when it "falls down" or is deposited on the ground, for instance in the form of acid precipitation. The effect of the deposition depends on the area in which this happens. The size of deposition that can be borne by various types of areas has therefore been defined by use of "the critical impact", cf. explanation box. By comparing the critical impact with the actual deposition, it is possible to identify areas in which it is necessary to reduce the deposition in order to avoid acidification damages.

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Map 2.5.5
Reduction requirements for Sulfur and Nitrogen deposition

Such a comparison has been made by the Co-ordination Centre for Impacts (under the Geneva Convention). The result is shown on map 2.5.5 for 1990 and 2010 (estimate), respectively.

It appears from the map that in Germany, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Poland, it is necessary to reduce the impact from both sulphur and nitrogen. The same applies to areas around the Scandinavian capitals. For the entire Baltic Area (except for the Northern parts of Norway, Sweden, and Finland), a reduction of the nitrogen impact is required. This applies both for 1990 and 2010, which indicates that the means introduced for obtaining a perceptible reduction of the environmental impact from air-borne sulphur and nitrogen have not been sufficient.

2.6 Nuclear Safety

2.6.1 Nuclear sources of pollution in general

Radioactive substances in the environment originate from both natural processes, primarily arisen in connection with the formation of the Earth, and from human activities. The dose impacts originating from the natural background radiation is estimated in total to exceed the radiation contributions that inflicted on the population by human activities. However, accidents in connection with the human activities may cause important dose contributions to limited population groups. The nuclear contributions from activities created by humans, ¹³⁷Cs (caesium) and ⁹⁰Sr (strontium) originate from point sources such as nuclear power plants and nonpoint sources such as for instance dumped nuclear waste.

2.6.2 Nuclear Contributions from Human Activities to the Baltic

The Tjernobyl accident in 1986 is clearly the biggest individual source of radioactive contributions, followed by the atmospheric nuclear testings in the 1960'ies. The biggest outlets directly into the water environment originate from the reprocessing plants in Sellafield (UK) and La Hague (F), but the outlet of caesium from these plants has today been reduced to an insignificant level. Within the last year, the outlet of technetium from Sellafield has increased, but the health impact of this is of minor importance compared to the earlier caesium outlets.

Compared to the above-mentioned sources, the contribution of radioactive substances from nuclear plants in the Baltic Region is decreasing. The impact of the dumpings carried out by both Sweden and Russia in the 1960'ies is negligible compared to the above mentioned contributions.

Table 2.6.1 shows the relative contributions of caesium (¹³⁷Cs) to the Baltic during late years. It appears from the table that it is not reasonable using a narrow limitation of distance concerning the radioactive contributions caused by human beings, because the three most important contributions originate from plants or activities outside the run-off area of the Baltic.

2.6.3 Potential Nuclear Sources in the Baltic, created by Human Beings

Besides nuclear power plants, accidents or carelessness in connection with other nuclear activities may result in pollution by radioactive substances of minor parts of the Baltic area. Among such plants and activities, the following can be mentioned: Atomic-powered ships and satellites, test reactors, transport of radioactive substances, including used reactor fuel, plants for storage and depositing of used reactor fuel and nuclear waste, and plants for extraction of uranium and production of reactor fuel. In the following, a number of potential sources of pollution are mentioned:

Table 2.6.1
Accumulated contribution of Cs137 to the Baltic region from various sources in the period 1950-1996

Nuclear Power Plants

There exists in Europe approx. 320 nuclear reactors, which are in operation, and in principle, an accident at any of these plants, may, at unfavourable meteorological conditions, result in a perceptible radioactive impact on the region.The risk of a considerable radioactive outlet decreases concurrently with the distance to the nuclear power plant.

In connection with the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, comprehensive safety measures have been taken in order to avoid that by accident, strongly radioactive substances are released from the reactor core and led out into the surroundings. This does not least apply to the western nuclear power plants lying close to the Baltic, i.e. the Swedish, Finnish, and North-German plants, which - besides efficient reactor inclusions that can resist a certain over-pressure as a protection against outlet into the surroundings - are also equipped with filter systems for pressure relief of the reactor inclusion at strong pressure increases. On the contrary, safety is in general bad at the EastEuropean plants, and an environmental threat to the Baltic from nuclear activities is therefore especially connected to these plants. The nuclear power plants around the Baltic, which are included under the bilateral warning and information agreements with Denmark, appear from Table 2.6.2.

Table 2.6.2
Overview of nuclear power plants which are covered by bilateral er omfattet af bilateral warning and information agreements with Denmark. Source INSC/1/ and the Danish Agency of Contingency Measures.

Nuclear-powered Ships and Test Reactors

Nuclear-powered ships have, as their power source, a reactor that is in principle functioning in the same way as a nuclear power plant on land. Since the ship reactors are much smaller than reactors in nuclear power plants, the quantities of radioactive substances that can be led out into the air or the water will be correspondingly smaller. The same applies to test reactors, which are typically much smaller than ships reactors.

The problem of nuclear-powered ships is that they can come closer to Denmark's area than even the closest nuclear power plants. However, a preliminary permit is required for sailing in the inner Danish territorial waters or for entering Danish ports by foreign war-ships or civilian nuclear powered ships. However, passing international waters, including the Danish straits, does not require any special permit, neither for nuclear-powered ships nor war-ships having the capacity to carry nuclear weapon.

Nuclear Weapon

As far as we know, accidents caused by nuclear weapon have never led to a nuclear explosion or instance by exposing planes or ships to crash, come into collision or catch fire. These types of accidents have at most caused pollution problems entailing local migration of minor quantities of radioactive substances in cases where the cladding was destroyed in connection with the accident. The pollution is mainly caused by plutonium, which due to its natural radioactive waste emits alpha radiation, which is rich in energy but very short-ranged.

This type of radiation does not entail any risk in connection with external radiation, but if the substance is absorbed in a human body by inhalation or through food, the risk of having cancer later in life is increased.

Nuclear Transports

Transport of radioactive and nuclear material, including used reactor fuel, through Danish territory or on Danish ships requires preliminary notification of the Danish authorities. However, foreign ships have the right to pass Danish external territorial waters, including our international straits, according to the rules of harmless passage. There is no general obligation according to international law for ships to inform whether they have radioactive material onboard. There is a special arrangement between Sweden and Denmark, according to which Danish authorities are kept informed about transports of used reactor fuel from the nuclear power plants of Ringhals and Barsebäck to the intermediary storage for used reactor fuel, the Central Storage for Used Fuel (CLAB) at Oskarshamn by the special ship "SIGYN".

Transport of used reactor fuel takes place in transport containers, which in accordance with IAEA's guidelines give a high degree of safety against outlet of the radioactive substances into the surroundings. Even in case of a serious transport accident, the consequences in the form of health risks caused by radiation will therefore be very limited.

Plants for Treatment of Reactor Fuel and Radioactive Waste

The risk of major accidents in connection with activities related to handling of reactor fuel and radioactive waste in the Baltic Region can in general be considered as very small. In the same way, the risk of environmental damages in the Baltic as a consequence of more remote waste deposits can be regarded as minimal; consequently, the German Gorleben plant can not be characterised as causing environmental harm to the Baltic. The storage of great quantities of used ship reactor fuel etc. in the Murmansk area can not be regarded as a real threat towards the Baltic, even if the storage takes place under totally unacceptable conditions.

There are no plants for processing or final storage of used reactor fuel or hot waste in the region, but the relative pollution contribution from French and English processing plants is not small.Today, the outlets have been considerably reduced compared to earlier. Intermediary storage of used reactor fuel in water basins among others takes place in CLAB (Central Storage for used Fuel) at Oskarshamn in Sweden and at the closed-down nuclear power plant of Greifswald in Germany.

In connection with extraction of uranium, big quantities of residual products from the extraction have been accumulated in the Sillamäe Lake in Estonia.The Sillamäe Lake borders to the Baltic, and a pond has been constructed as a half-circle with departure from the coast. The circle is constructed of earthworks of a height of 25 m, built of earth and clay. The pond contains approx. 7 million m³ wastewater and heavy metals-containing waste, of which 1200 tons are considered radioactive. The contents of the pond are lifted over the sea surface, with the consequence that there is today a considerable pressure related to outlets. Earth walls and the bottom membrane are today considered as insecure and a daily washing-out into the Baltic takes place of 16 to 34 tons of waste. Besides, the level of radon radiation is increased locally in the area, and there is a risk of contamination of the underground.

Satellites with a Nuclear Power Source

Since 1978, a security mechanism has been introduced on nuclear-driven satellites, which in connection with crashes automatically separate the uranium fuel from the reactor. This means that the uranium fuel burns at a great height. Radioactive particles from such incineration of the uranium fuel of the reactor are distributed globally as a small increase of the radioactive substances and the radiation, which already exists in the atmosphere.

The Nuclear Contingency Plan of the Baltic Region

There is no doubt that the Tjernobyl accident has been of very big importance to Europe in the years following the accident. The accident made the Western world aware of the many safety-related and environmental problems associated with Soviet industries and their consumption of resources, including not least the nuclear industry. The following openness at the same time made it possible for the Western world to help. Massive aid programmes were established, among others with a view to remedy the worst safety problems at the nuclear power plants.

For the western nuclear power industry, the Tjernobyl accident did not have major technical consequences. First of all because the safety related problems connected to the Tjernobyl accident were not relevant for the western nuclear power plants. However, we learned from the accident that it was acceptable to have a nuclear contingency plan, also to protect us against accidents at remote plants. Consequently, many countries prepared their nuclear contingency plan simultaneously with an improvement of international cooperation. A new international convention concerning early warning of nuclear accidents came into force six months after the accident.

In Denmark, the former Barsebäck contingency plan, covering the Greater Copenhagen Region, was extended into a national nuclear contingency plan, which was meant to foresee all types of nuclear accidents. On the technical level, the contingency plan was also extended, for instance by the introduction of better measurement systems, including automatic warning systems.

Besides this, Denmark has entered into bilateral warning and information agreements with all nuclear power countries. The natural biotopes on land and in freshwater have in most places in the region today either disappeared or been strongly modified as a consequence of centuries' deforestation, cultivation and drainage of wet areas, regulation of water courses, construction of infrastructure, and pollution. around the Baltic, and with England, whereas warning about accidents at more remote nuclear power plants takes place through the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna (IAEA), which is part of the UN.

2.7 Biodiversity - Nature Conservation

2.7.1 Biodiversity and Nature Conservation in General

The term of "biodiversity" refers to the biological multitude of organisms in all environments on land and in water, and to the ecological interaction that the organisms are part of. The term of biodiversity is included as a central element of the nature conservation work.

2.7.2 Biodiversity in the Baltic Region

Ecologically, the Baltic Region is a rather homogeneous and coherent area, in which fauna and flora have or have had many similarities. The southern land areas in the region are located in the European hardwood forest region, which in Scandinavia and the north-eastern part of the region pass into the boreal coniferous forest belt (the taiga). See map 2.7.1.The Baltic itself is a big brackish water lake, in which the salinity is determined by a mixture of freshwater run-off from land and Atlantic water running in through the Danish straits.

Many types of plants and animals are or have been widely distributed within the entire region, whereas others have had more limited occurrences. Many types of especially birds and fish make annual migrations, where they disappear from the cold, snow and ice-covered areas to the North and East during the winter-half. In a global perspective, for instance compared to areas in the tropes, the Baltic region is not the richest area as far as biodiversity is concerned. Nevertheless, the area is the habitat of many thousand types of plants and animals.

The natural biotopes on land and in freshwater have in most places in the region today either disappeared or been strongly modified as a consequence of centuries' deforestation, cultivation and drainage of wet areas, regulation of water courses, construction of infrastructure, and pollution. The development has been most remarkable in the western part of the region. The coherence between land use and biodiversity is shown in Table 2.7.1.

Today, the wild flora and fauna has in general become poor, especially in the western part of the region. An important reason for this is the comprehensive destruction of natural biotopes and during the last decades the intensified agricultural exploitation and the pollution in general. Besides, non-sustainable hunting and former times' extirpation campaigns towards a number of undesired species - especially some big beasts of prey, birds of prey, seals, etc. - have had the consequence that these have either disappeared or can only found in very small populations or in reservoirs.

The eastern part of the Baltic region is today characterised by the fact that there still are some wide areas in which nature is marked by few or no human intervention. There are great continuous and relatively undisturbed forest and marsh areas, coastal areas without buildings and in general a richer biodiversity than in the western part of the region, among others with occurrence of a number of species which have entirely or partially disappeared from Denmark - for instance bear, lynx, wolf, beaver, otter, white and black stock, etc.

Nature is much better preserved here, among others due to a lower population density and a less intensive use of the areas, which reflects the somewhat slower economic development and the slower act of making everything more efficient during the 20th century. Besides, in all EastEuropean countries up during the 20th century there has been an established tradition and understanding of nature conservation, which in many ways corresponds to how we do in Denmark.

Look here!

Map 2.7.1
Distribution of major habitats
   

Table 2.7.1
Survey of physical planning as causes and loads with impact on the biodiversity in Europe.

Look here!

3. International Conventions Within the Field of Environment

Due to the cross-border character of the pollution and the nature protection, it has been necessary for countries and unions of countries to agree on which activities each individual country must carry out for the sake of entirety.

Such agreements will become part of international law, which regulate the relations between states and the obligations of states to arrange internal legal conditions in a certain way. A convention of the treaty right has been agreed upon within the UN, and it came into force on 27 January 1980. According to its contents, the convention only binds countries, which have ratified it, but it is anticipated that the rules of the convention apply to everybody, since the convention is in most fields based on the common part of international law.

International agreements have many names, for instance treaty, convention, journal, and covenant.The name of the agreement does not have legal implication and oral agreements may also be binding if competent parties have entered them.

Within the field of environment, the agreements are normally named conventions and covenants and they are binding as per their content.

An international agreement is like other agreements made by the parties' exchange of declarations. This may take place by signature, exchange of notes, ratification, approval, and acceptance or in any way that has been agreed upon.

In case of agreements, the fulfilment of which demands the participation of national parliaments, it will typically be part of the agreement that it will not come into force until a certain number of the participants have confirmed the agreement by a so-called ratification of the agreement.

Before ratification of the agreement, the countries taking place in the negotiations have normally signed the agreement. Unless otherwise indicated in the agreement, signing of the agreement is only supposed to have legal importance, partly because it determines the final contents of the convention, partly because it obliges the signing country to abstain from negotiations that will make the convention superfluous. Within the field of environment, this could for instance be the case if one country would extirpate the entire population of a certain type of migratory birds that the countries had just agreed to protect.

Entering into binding international agreements may also take place by a country accessing a convention by so-called accession.

This chapter includes a detailed description of agreements within the field of environment, of which some have been briefly described in the previous chapter.The description is based on a number of recurrent themes, which makes it easy quickly to get information about central questions related to international guidelines. Systematic details on the way in which the countries have bound themselves are not given in the following; as a principal rule it is only indicated which countries in the Baltic area are valid parties to an agreement.

3.1 Regional Conventions

3.1.1 The Helsinki Convention on Protection of the Marine Environment in the Baltic Area (1974 + 1992)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention of 22 March 1974 regarding protection of the marine environment in the Baltic Area, the Helsinki Convention, came into force on 3 May 1980. The purpose of the convention is protection of the Baltic against all kinds of pollution, i.e. against dumping and pollution from landbased sources, ships, oil platforms, and aeroplanes. To reach this target, the convention invites to take steps to combat various sources of pollution.

On 9 April 1992, a new and revised convention was signed. It came into force on 17 January 2000 and covers the same subjects as the 1974 convention, but it includes a number of tightening and modernisation in the light of the development within the field of environmental protection. New elements are natural protection and biodiversity.

Geographic Limits

The convention covers the entire Baltic area up to Skagen, including the Great Belt, the Little Belt and Kattegat. The internal waters are directly covered by the 1992 Convention, and the run-off areas to the Baltic are covered as far as land-based pollution is concerned.

Contracting Parties

The convention of 22 March 1974 was signed and ratified by Denmark, Sweden, Western Germany, Finland, the Soviet Union, Eastern Germany, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia and the EC.

The new convention of 1992 was signed and ratified by Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, the EC and ratified by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Germany and the EC.

Besides the parties to the convention, a number of inter-governmental organisations and non-government organisations, as well as the government of Belarus, have the status of observers at the Helsinki Convention (HELCOM).

The inter-governmental observers are: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission (IBSFC), International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), International Maritime Organisation (IMO), OSPAR Commission (OSPAR), United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),World Health Organisation (WHO), Regional Office for Europe (WHO/EURO), and World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).

The non-government observers are: Baltic Ports Organisation (BPO), Bird Life International, Coalition Clean Baltic (CCB), European Chlor-Alkali Industry (EURO CHLOR), European Fertiliser Manufacturers' Association (EFMA), European Union for Coastal Conservation (EUCC), International Environmental Agency for Local Governments (ICLEI), Standing Conference of Rectors, Presidents and Vice Chancellors of the European Universities (CRE), Stitching Greenpeace Council/Greenpeace International, Union of Baltic Cities (UBC) and World Wide Fund for Nature/WWF International.

Organisation and Decision process

It is the responsibility of the Helsinki Convention to make sure that the convention is observed. The convention meets once every year, and meetings are regularly held at ministerial level. Decisions made by the Helsinki Convention - these are made unanimously - are considered as recommendations to the governments involved. The recommendations contain a political, but not a legal - obligation for the member states to bring its national legislation in accordance with the recommendations.

At HELCOM's plenary meeting in March 1999, a new structure for the Commission was agreed upon, with a view to making the Commission more efficient and modern. Its activities should also be coordinated with the other environmental and natural protection activities in the Baltic, including the Baltic Agenda 21 and the Baltic Protection Programme as well as the relations to the EU.

The Presidency of the Commission is awarded in turns to the contracting parties every second year and in alphabetic order, according to the English names of the countries. According to the new structure, the Commission contains four permanent groups and a task force to implement the Baltic Support Programme, and the pertaining working groups, expert groups and ad hoc working groups.

The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Group is working with a common monitoring programme covering different sectors of the marine environment, i.e. the open sea, coastal waters and air pollution. Data are collected in common databases and are regularly evaluated by experts from the Baltic countries in order to survey the environmental conditions.

The technical groups, i.e. the Landbased Pollution Groups, are working on reductions of the discharges into the sea and emissions into the atmosphere from urban areas, industry and non-point sources, including agriculture.

The Sea-based Pollution Group takes measures to reduce all types of pollution in connection with normal operation of ships and works with receipt facilities in ports for ship waste. It also co-ordinates the activities of the Baltic countries in connection with cases concerning pollution from ships and prepares rules and guidelines for cooperation in connection with reduction of the discharge of oil and other hazardous substances.

An integrated part of HELCOM is the secretary of the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Action Programme (JPC) (see Chapter 4.3.6)

Fields of Activities

The Baltic countries are continuously working on developing and intensifying their co-operation. Dumping and incineration on the sea are strictly forbidden, except for dumping of dredge material collected from the sea bottom (dredging).

A series of recommendations have been adopted over the years concerning reduction of the pollution from industry and agriculture, urban wastewater and offshore activities. At the ministerial meeting in 1988, a ministerial declaration was signed, the objective of which was a reduction by 50% of the discharge of heavy metals, persistent organic matters and nutrients over a 10-year period (as per 1995). However, it appeared from an implementation report presented by the Commission at the ministerial meeting in 1998 that this objective has not been fulfilled for a number of substances, and a number of weaknesses and shortcomings of the data material were disclosed. A number of measures for repairing these problems were agreed upon, including an objective and strategy concerning hazardous materials with a view to reduction and phasing out of the most hazardous substances by the year 2020.

As part of the Baltic strategy for reception facilities in ports for ship waste, guidelines have been adopted concerning obligatory delivery of waste in the Baltic ports.

Relations to the EU

The situation is today very different from the start of the convention, where only Denmark and Western Germany were members of the EU, and where the EC as such did not participate. Now four Baltic countries are members of the EU, and four of the other countries have applied for membership. Besides, the EU is a contracting party to the Convention, and thus only Russia remains outside.

This means that the EU - not least within the regulatory field - has and will continue to have a crucial impact on HELCOM's work. At the same time, this underlines the importance of maintaining and developing the environmental co-operation with Russia in the Baltic area, including working for a stronger co-operation between the EU and Russia.

Technical and Financial Support Programmes

See Chapter 4.3.6.

Sources

The Danish Environmental protection Agency

Addresses

Internet address: http://www.helcom.fi

Helsinki Commission,
Katajanokanlaituri 6B,
FIN00160,
Finland
Tel.: +358 9 6220 220
Telefax : +358 9 6220 2239
E-mail: helcom@helcom.fi

3.1.2 The Gdansk Convention - the Convention of Fishery and Protection of the live Sources of Wealth in the Baltic and the Straits (1973)

Purpose and Origin

'The Convention of Fishery and protection of the live Sources of Wealth in the Baltic and the Straits', also named 'the Gdansk Convention', was signed in Gdansk on 13 September 1973. At a conference held in Warsaw in November 1982, certain parts of the original convention were modified. The most important modification was that Germany and Denmark retired for the benefit of the EU, which became a valid member on the part of the EU countries.The revised convention was signed on 13 November 1982 and became valid upon the ratification on 18 March 1984.

The purpose of the convention is to ensure a maximum and stable fish production in the Baltic and the Straits, and to protect the live sources of wealth at the same time as a rational exploitation is taking place.

Geographic Limits

The convention covers all waters of the Baltic and the Straits, except for the internal waters. The area is delimited to the west and the north by a line from Hasensøre to Gnibens Spids, from Korshage to Spodsbjerg and from Gilbjerg Hoved to Kullen.

Contracting Parties

At the signing of the Convention in September 1973, it was signed by countries the coastal lines of which were towards the Baltic, i.e.: The Soviet Union, Finland, Sweden, Denmark,Western Germany, Eastern Germany, and Poland.

At the modification in November 1982, the EU as contracting parties replaced Germany and Denmark. Later, in 1995, Sweden and Finland retired because they obtained membership of the EU, and Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became valid members the same year.

Organisation and Decision process

In order to meet the objectives of the Convention, an international fishing commission has been created (the Baltic Fishing Commission). All contracting states can select maximum two representatives to be members of the Commission. Besides, all states are enEnvironmental Co-operation in the Baltic Regiond to select the number of experts and assisting consultants.

The Commission constitutes itself by selecting a President and a VicePresident among its members. Besides, the Commission lays down its standing orders and other conditions that the Commission might find necessary for its work.

Any of the contracting states has one vote in the Commission. A two-third's majority of the contracting states present must accept decisions and recommendations.

The decisions and recommendations of the commission are binding for the contracting states, unless a state decides to raise an objection against a decision or recommendation. In such case, the decisions or recommendations of the commission will not bind the state in question. The states have 90 days for making objections, but a state may at any time make objection against a decision or recommendation made by the Commission and will thereby have the right not to follow the Commission.

Fields of Activities

Three over-all fields of activities have been defined as obligations of the Commission:

	Collects, compare, analyse and send out statistical material related to fishery, flora and fauna in the Baltic and the Straits.
	Prepare proposals for co-ordination of scientific research.
	Prepare and present recommendations.

The Convention proposes recommendations within the following fields:

	Measures for adjustment of fishing tackle, equipment, and methods.
	Measures for adjustment of minimum measures for fish and determination of protection periods.
	Measures for creation of areas that are protected against fishing.
	Measures for breeding and transplantation of fish and other organisms
	Measures for distribution of fishing rights among the states
	Control measures
	Measures for protection and rational exploitation of the live sources of wealth of the sea

Once every year, the Commission gives a series of recommendations for the following year. For instance an annually recurrent recommendation for the total allowable catches (TAC's) for the four economically most important species of fish, i.e. cod, salmon, herring, and sprat, with a specification of the maximum allowable catches for each individual country.

Besides, the Commission has adopted common fishing guidelines concerning mesh sizes; the minimum amount of landed fish, the percentage of subsidiary catches, and closed areas.Within the field of control, common guidelines have been adopted in order to make fishing control more efficient.

At an extra-ordinary meeting in 1998, the Baltic fishing commission adopted an Agenda 21 concerning sustainable development of the fishing sector in the Baltic area. The plan among others includes the framework for a long-term administration plan for salmon, cod, herring, and sprat.

Relations to the EU

The EU has accepted the Convention, and the EU has exclusive competence within the field of fishing. 

Sources

The Danish Ministry of Food

Valid EU precepts, Document 283A0826
(02)

Valid EU precepts, Document 283A0826
(03)

Internet: http://www.ibsfc.org

3.1.3 The Agreement on small Cetaceans in the Baltic and the North Sea (1991)

Purpose and Origin

The purpose of the Small Cetaceans Agreement, 'The Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Sea', abbreviated ASCOBANS, is to protect and administer all species of small cetaceans (i.e. all toothed whales, Odontocetti, except for the sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus) in the Baltic and the North Sea. It is to promote the cooperation on scientific registration and supervision of small cetaceans, including modification of fishing tackle with a view to avoid unintended subsidiary catch too.The cooperation is intended to prevent discharge of substances into the sea environment that might potentially cause a threat to the health of the animals.

A regional agreement on protection of small cetaceans was originally proposed on Swedish initiative as part of the Bonn Convention, the purpose of which is protection of migrating species of wild animals, see chapter 3.2.9. As a forerunner of ASCOBANS, a Memorandum of Understanding on Small Cetaceans in the North Sea was agreed upon at the third North Sea Conference held in Haag in 1990.The final agreement was signed in September 1991 and the agreement came into force on 29 March 1994.

Geographic Limits

The agreement is limited to the North Sea, the Channel, and the Baltic, comprising the Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, Kattegat, The Sound, and the Straits.

Contracting Parties

Seven countries signed the agreement: Belgium, Denmark, The Netherlands, Poland, Great Britain, Sweden, and Germany.

Organisation and Decision Process

Each individual state selects a coordinating authority, which serves as contact for the secretariat of the agreement and the consulting scientific committee.

The purpose of the secretariat is among others to simplify the exchange of information and the co-ordination of supervision and research between the parties and international organisations.The secretariat is responsible for planning and holding meetings between the parties at least once every third year, and at these meetings the secretariat will present a summary of the progress obtained and the difficulties, if any, experienced since the latest meeting.The secretariat must prepare and maintain the financial accounts. The secretariat is connected to the UN and has offices in Bonn in Germany.

At meetings between the parties, decisions are made at simple majority, however, in connection with modifications to the agreement itself or in connection with financial decisions, 75% majority is requi-red. All parties are bound to follow the decisions made at the meetings between the parties. However, the decisions can not influence the rights of one party to take more strict precautions with a view to protect small cetaceans.

A consulting scientific committee has been formed, the purpose of which is to assist with consultancy services from experts and supply the secretariat and the parties with information about the protection and administration of small cetaceans. All parties select one member for the consulting committee. The Committee selects its president among its members and determines its own procedures. The consulting committee may invite other experts to participate in its meetings, and the committee may set down working groups.The consulting committee co-operates with organisations such as International Council of the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), International Whaling Commission (IWC), and The North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO).

Fields of Activities

It has been agreed that a protection and administration plan for small cetaceans shall be made, containing among others the following issues:

	an obligation to implement independent observation programmes with a view to assess the extent of unintentional subsidiary catch of small cetaceans,
	an obligation to support the research within development of selective tools and other measures with a view to reduce the extent of unintentional subsidiary catch of small cetaceans,
	an obligation to assess the limits for acceptable unintentional subsidiary catch,
	an invitation to make laws with a view to reducing the subsidiary catch of small cetaceans,
	an invitation to carry out research work within the food basis for small cetaceans,
	an invitation to the parties to establish criteria for selecting protected areas for small cetaceans.

All this has led to formulation of an action plan with the following contents:

	reduction of sea pollution,
	reduction of direct impact from fishing (for instance subsidiary catch, especially porpoises),
	reduction of indirect impact from fishing (for instance impact on food resources),
	reduction of possible disturbances (for instance seismic surveys, ecotourism (whale watching)),
	establishment of protected areas,
	monitoring, status and population surveys,
	establishment of national databases of subsidiary catches and stranded fish,
	education and promotion.

Relations to the EU

EU is co-signatory to the agreement, but no ratification has been made.

Sources

The Danish Agency of Forestry and Natural Protection

3.1.4 The Nordic Convention on Environmental Protection (1975)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention, which was signed on 19 February 1975 and came into force on 5 October 1976, obliges the courts and administrative authorities of the Nordic countries to ignore national borders in connection with hazardous activities. The Convention is a central part in relation to meeting the requirements of Article 30 of the Helsinki Convention (see chapter 3.1.1).

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention has been signed by Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland and has been accepted by the parties. Iceland did not find its participation relevant because of the special geographic location of the country.

Organisation and Decision Process

The Convention is based on the precondition that the environmental guidelines of the Nordic countries are developed more or less in the same direction, but no institutional structure has been included in the convention to make sure this happens. However, such stipulations are included in the Helsinki Convention.

Fields of Activities

The Convention handles environmentally hazardous activities, such as "discharge of solid or liquid waste, gasses or other substances from the soil, buildings or systems in water courses, lakes or the sea. Use of the soil, the sea bottom, buildings or systems in other ways that entail or may entail disturbances of the surroundings, in the form of water pollution or other impact on the water conditions, sand drift, air pollution, noise, vibrations, temperature changes, ionising radiation, light and the like. Hazardous activities, which are adjusted by a special agreement between two or more of the contracting states, are kept outside the Convention.

The Convention also includes a series of stipulations concerning how information about the cases is exchanged between the authorities, a procedure for settling of cases in which the authorities can not reach agreement.

The Convention has the effect that citizens of another country must be heard and has the right to complain according to the same rules as the citizens of the country itself.

On various occasions, an assessment has been made of the use of the Convention in practise. It appears from this assessment that the Convention is used quite often. This especially applies to Article 5, according to which the contracting countries are obliged to inform authorities or the public in the other countries about cases that may have environmental impact on these countries.

There have also been cases in which decisions concerning permission to carry out contaminating activities in another country have been complained about by the authorities of another country. An example of this is the complaint from the Naturvårdsverket about the permission to extend the coalfired power plant on Amager. The more technical parts of the Convention about procedures for solving environmental conflicts between the countries have not been directly used in practise, but a parallel procedure was used at the time in the Danish/ Swedish Commission for Barsebäck.

Sources

Danish Environmental protection Agency

The home page of the Nordic Council of Ministers:

www.norden.org

3.1.5 The OSPAR Convention - the Convention on Protection of the Sea Environment in the Northeast Atlantic Area (1992)

Purpose and Origin

The first conventions for protection of the sea environment in the Northeast Atlantic Area, including the North Sea and Kattegat, were signed in 1972 (the Oslo Convention) and in 1974 (the Paris Convention) by the countries having coastal zones towards the north-east Atlantic Area.

On 22 September 1992, a new OSPAR Convention, integrating the Oslo and Paris Conventions, was signed. The OSPAR Convention came into force in the spring of 1998.

The purpose of the Oslo Convention was to avoid sea pollution by dumping and incineration at sea.The purpose of the Paris Convention was to protect the sea environment against pollution from offshore activities and land-based sources. The OSPAR Convention maintains these purposes, but it also includes protection of marine ecosystems and biological diversity against human activities.To live up to this purpose, the Convention invites the contracting parties to take all possible steps to combat various human activities and sources of pollution.

Geographic Limits

The Convention covers the Northeast Atlantic area, including the North Sea and Kattegat and the adjacent Arctic waters. Internal waters are also included.

Contracting Parties

The OSPAR Convention has been signed by the following countries: Belgium, Denmark, the EU, Finland, France, Ireland, Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, and Germany.

Organisation and Decision Process

The decision-making body of the Convention is the OSPAR Commission. The Commission meets once every year and every fifth year meetings are held at ministerial level. Decisions made by the OSPAR Commission are considered as OSPAR decisions and OSPAR recommendations. They must be made by unanimity, but 75% majority can also make decisions, in that case only the 75% bind themselves. Only OSPAR decisions are binding for the governments involved, and they must be incorporated in the national legislation of the parties.

The presidency of OSPAR is based on election every second year.

The Commission consists of two committees, subjacent working groups and ad hoc working groups:

The Committee for Programmes and Measures is working towards reductions of the discharges into the sea and of the emissions into the atmosphere from urban areas, industry and nonpoint sources, including agriculture. Decisions/recommendations are prepared, which control, forbid or reduce the use of certain hazardous substances, or which reduce the discharges or emissions.

The Committee for Assessment and Monitoring is working with monitoring programmes covering various parts of the sea environment, activities having impact on the sea environment, and supplies of polluting substances from land-based sources and from air pollution. Data are collected and evaluated and reported regularly. Furthermore, a summarising Quality Status Report is regularly prepared, which assesses the environmental condition and the impacts from a general point of view.

Fields of Activities

The Paris Convention includes a series of recommendations and decisions concerning reduction of discharges of hazardous substances, radioactive substances and oil, etc. and measures have been taken concerning reduction of the pollution by nutrients. The Oslo Convention has been modified several times, so that internal waters have been included under the field of the convention, incineration at the sea has come under control and is only accepted as an intermediary solution, and dumping of industrial waste has been stopped. Finally, it has been agreed to interpret the Oslo Convention so that control of dumping - including abandonment - of offshore oil rigs and ships is included under the Convention. By the signing of the new OSPAR Convention in 1992, dumping of radioactive substances came in under the Convention and was forbidden. At the OSPAR ministerial meeting in Portugal in July 1998, the following important decisions were made:

	Prohibitions of dumping of wornout offshore oil rigs.
	A new objective and strategy for hazardous substances.
	A new objective and strategy for radioactive substances.
	A strategy for combat of and a common procedure for identification of eutrofication.
	A new annex to the OSPAR Convention on protection and preservation of species and habitats, and the appurtenant strategy.

Present and Future Strategy

In the years to come, the work of the OSPAR Commission will comprise implementation of the strategies agreed upon. Besides, discharges from offshore activities will be an essential issue.

The Relationship to the EU

The EU is a contracting party to the new OSPAR Convention, and today EU coordination meetings are regularly held in connection with the annual commission meetings in OSPAR. Among the 15 member countries in OSPAR, 12 are members of the EU, two are members of the European Economic Co-operation, and only Switzerland is outside the EU co-operation. It is therefore important to make sure that OSPAR's control within the marine field takes place in a co-ordinated way and in continuation of EU directives within the field of water.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Reports from the annual commission meetings

OSPAR's home page:
http://www.ospar.org/

3.2 Other International Conventions

3.2.1 The MARPOL Convention - The International Convention on Prevention of Ships Pollution (1973 1978)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention was prepared at an international conference on sea pollution held in 1973 in the UN's International Marine Organisation, IMO. It was later modified by protocol in 1978.

The purpose of the convention is protection of the marine environment against pollution from ships. However, the convention does not include dumping from ships, which is included under the Convention of 29 December 1972 on prevention of sea pollution by dumping of waste and other substances - the London Convention, see chapter 3.2.3.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The MARPOL 73/78 Convention is a global UN Convention, which has been accepted by all countries around the Baltic.

Organisation and Decision Process

The top decision-making organ is the General Assembly of IMO, who meet every second year.The decisions of the general assembly are made in the form of resolutions, which are sent by the various committees as draft versions.

The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) is the committee which primarily considers conditions in relation to MARPOL 73/78 and the committee may also within certain fields make decisions in the form of resolutions, among others by making modifications to the appendices of the convention.

Modifications to the very convention and agreement on new appendices to the convention normally take place at a conference with participation of the parties to the convention, which is called by the secretarygeneral of the organisation. However, the coming into force of modifications or new appendices requires that at least 15 member states, representing 50% of the commercial tonnage of the world, have ratified the appendix.

Fields of Activities

Through MARPOL 73/78, uniform rules have been established on a worldwide basis for transport and discharge of oil, hazardous liquid substances in bulk, hazardous substances in packages, sewage water and solid waste.

As a consequence of these rules, discharge of oil residue from the engine room etc. of a ship must not take place less than 12 miles from the closest coast. Oil tankers must be at least 50 miles from the closest coast before they discharge oil residue from the cargo. In special waters, including the Baltic and the North Sea, the requirements have been further tightened up. Thus, discharges must not at all take place from the cargo side, except for pure ballast water, and from the engine side, discharge of water must only take place with oil content of up to 15 ppm.

For oil tankers, separate ballast tanks are required, and for certain tankers, double bottom or double hull is also required.

The Convention also requires that discharges take place through approved filtration and control systems, which make sure that the oil content does not exceed the fixed quantity.

As far as discharge of hazardous liquid substances in bulk is concerned, discharge of the most hazardous substances may not take place until the tanks of the ship have been cleaned in the port. Hereupon, the ship should among others be at least 12 miles from the closest coast and the water depth must be at least 25 m. the requirements for cleaning of the tanks are more stringent depending on the hazardousness of the substances. In special waters, for instance the Baltic area, purification is required more often than normally, and some time a better purification is required, whereas the discharge conditions are the same as outside the special waters.

For hazardous substances in packages we talk about guideless for packaging, labelling, ships documents, stowage and reduction of quantities in relation to the hazardous substances which can be considered as marine polluters.

For toilet wastewater, finely divided and disinfected wastewater can be discharged more than 4 miles from the closest coast. If the wastewater has not been treated, if may only be discharged more than 12 miles from the closest coast.

Only wastewater treated in an approved treatment plant is not subject to the above restrictions in connection with discharge.

In connection with discharge of waste, discharge of plastic including synthetic ropes, fishing net, waste bags of plastic is forbidden. In special waters, only discharge of food waste is allowed, and the discharge must take place more than 12 miles from the closest coast.

By virtue of the Convention, as far as discharge of substances under Appendices I, II, and V is concerned, more strict rules for discharge into the so-called "special waters" can be set.

Present and Future Strategy

At a conference in 1997, a new appendix to MARPOL 73/78 was agreed upon, concerning reduction of air pollution from ships.

The Environmental Committee is working intensively on phasing out of tincontaining anti-fouling paints and replacement of these by treatment paints - methods that are not hazardous to the sea environment. Also a new appendix to the Convention on exchange of ballast water is being prepared in order to avoid that hazardous aquatic and pathogenic organisms are transferred from one region to another. During late years, the Environmental Committee has intensified its work in relation to the preparation of more strict requirements for establishment of receiving facilities in ports for ships-generated waste, since it has turned out that these facilities are to a great extent insufficient.

Relations to the EU

The EU Commission is participating as an observer at the meetings of the environmental committee. The Commission has during late years represented a more active and environmentally conscious behaviour than was earlier the case. This behaviour approaches the behaviour of the Baltic and North Sea countries in relation to protection of the sea environment.

Sources

The Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Internet: www.imo.org

Addresses

IMO
4, Albert Embankment
London SE1 7SR
UK

Tel.: 0171-735 7611
Fax: 0171-587 3210

3.2.2 OPRC - The Convention on oil Pollution and Awareness, Efforts and Co-operation (1990)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention is prepared under an international conference held in 1990 in IMO, The UN's International Marine Organisation.

By signing the convention, all parties bind themselves - individually or in common - to take all necessary steps in relation to the guidelines of this convention and its appendices, with a view to take measures to avoid and intervene in connection with an oil pollution accident.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The OPRC Convention is a global Convention under the UN, which has been signed by 45 countries, together representing 49% of the ship tonnage of the world. In the Baltic area, Norway, Sweden, Finland. Germany and Denmark have signed the Convention.

Organisation and Decision Process

The upper decision-making body is IMO's General Assembly, which meets every second year.Various committees make the decisions of the general assembly in the form of resolutions, which are sent as draft versions.

The Marine Environment protection Committee (MEPC) is the committee that is primarily in charge of relations to MARPOL 73/78. The Committee can within certain areas make decisions in the form of resolutions, among others by modifying the appendices of the Convention.

Modifications to the Convention itself and adoption of new appendices normally takes place at a conference with participation of the parties to the convention called by the secretary-general of the organisation.

Adoption of modifications or new appendices demand, however, that at least 15 member states, representing 50% of the commercial tonnage of the world, have ratified the new guidelines.

Fields of Activities

The Convention requires that emergency plans are prepared for ships, they determine how the individual persons responsible should report a case of oil pollution, and they describe which measures should be taken in connection with receipt of a report.

Furthermore, the contracting parties bind themselves to help other countries with assistance, both in connection with training, education and technical assistance, etc. This has among others had the consequence that uniform education programmes have been prepared, which can be used by countries that have to set up emergency plans against pollution.

Relations to the EU

The EU Commission participates as an observer at the meetings of the working group. The Commission has formed an advisory group of experts under DG XI as part of the EU's reaction to the Amoco Cadiz tanker accident in 1978 (Advisory Committee on the Control and Reduction of Pollution caused by Oil and Other Harmful Substances discharged at Sea (ACPH)).

The expert group gives advice to the Commission as to which studies and pilot projects the Commission shall help with financial support, and the contents and form of an information system created by the Commission. This information system among others contains information on all types of control material in the member countries, information on the emergency plans of the individual countries, and information about the behaviour of various substances in the sea environment. The information system on oil has now become operative, whereas the corresponding system for chemicals is expected to become operative within the near future.

Sources

The Danish Environmental Protection Agency

IMO's home page:
Internet: www.imo.org

Address

IMO
4, Albert Embankment
London
SE1 7SR
UK

Tel.: 0171-735 7611
Fax: 0171-587 3210

3.2.3 The London Convention - The Convention of 29th December 1972 on Impediment of Sea Pollution by Dumping of Waste and other Substances

Purpose and Origin

The purpose of the Convention, which was created within the UN, was signed in London on 29 December 1972, is to impede sea pollution by dumping, including disposal and incineration on sea of chemical waste. In November 1996, a protocol was signed which in many ways brings the convention ajour and incorporates earlier decisions.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global. In the Baltic area, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, Poland, Germany, and Denmark have signed the Convention.

Vanuatu, England, South Africa, Germany, and Denmark had on 1 March 1999 only signed the protocol. It will not come into force until 25 states have signed.

Organisation and Decision Process

The upper decision-making forum is the consulting meeting held each autumn. Decisions to modify the Convention or its appendices can be made by a majority of two thirds of the participants present. Normally, the decisions take the form of resolutions. The proposed modifications have most often been considered in the Scientific Group before they are presented at a consulting meeting as a proposal.The Scientific Group meets every spring. Further, various working groups have been created when required concerning dumping of low and medium-radioactive waste, disposal and incineration on sea of chemical waste. IMO (the International Marine Organisation of the UN) is responsible for the secretariat, which has offices in London.

Fields of Activities

The Convention has been working on a great number of problems. In summary, these can be divided in three groups:

	Adjustment of dumping in general - including detailed guidelines for disposals.
	Adjustment of incineration on sea of chemical waste.
	Adjustment of stop for dumping of low and medium-radioactive material.

At the 16^th Advisory Meeting of the London Convention in 1993, three major modifications of the Convention were made, which have now been incorporated in the annexes: Stop of dumping of radioactive waste, stop of dumping of industrial waste, and stop of incineration of liquid chemical waste on sea.

Hereby, a required modernisation took place, simultaneously with the incorporation of earlier results into the Convention.

The London Convention has formed the basis for a number of regional sea conventions, which have later been adopted, around the world.

Present and Future Strategy

The work of the London Convention has changed status from being advisory to forbidding certain activities. For the areas in which dumping is still allowed, firm and detailed guidelines are however required.

An increasing element of the work of the convention will in the future be technological and scientific transfer and to some extent financial support to third world countries.

Relations to the EU

The EU has the status of observer in the Advisory Meetings and in the scientific working group.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

IMO's home page: www.imo.org

3.2.4 The Maritime Law Convention - Environment and Fish Part - The United Nations' Maritime Law Convention of 10 December 1982

Purpose and Origin

In 1973, the General Assembly of the UN decided to call the 3rd UN Maritime Law Conference.The purpose was to adopt a convention comprising all questions concerning legal conditions on sea. The convention included support to peaceful use of the sea, ensured uniform and efficient use of the resources of the sea, protected the live and not live resources of the sea, and protected and preserve the marine environment. The Maritime Law Convention (The UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)) was adopted in 1982 and came into force on 16 November 1994.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global and has today been ratified by 127 states. Among the Baltic countries, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, Poland, and Germany have ratified the Convention. Lithuania has not signed nor ratified the Convention. Denmark has signed the convention, but has not yet ratified it.

Organisation and Decision Process

Pursuant to the Convention, a number of institutions have been created. The most important ones are the following:

	The International Sea Bottom Authorities (ISBA). This authority is an administrative authority that administers the use of the common resources outside the continental shelf.
	The International Maritime Law Court (ITLOS).This court only settles cases related to maritime law. The participating states are free to bring a case for the court.
	The Assembly of the Participating States (SPLOS). Meetings are held annually or biannually. At these meetings, among others budgets are discussed.
	The Continental Commission (CLCS). This Commission considers possible requirements of participating states outside the 200 miles limit.

Fields of Activities in connection with Environmental Protection

The Convention includes 320 Articles and 9 appendices. It seeks to treat all sides of the legal conditions at sea, including protection of the marine environment.

The marine law convention is interesting because of the institutionalisation of an exclusive financial zone, which is of up to 200 miles from the basic lines from where the width of the territorial seawater is calculated. If there is less than 200 miles between two coastal states, delimitation must be agreed upon on the basis of general international law, with a view to reaching an equitable solution.

If a coastal state makes an exclusive financial zone of up to 200 miles, the coastal state will get the sole and exclusive right among others to use the natural sources of wealth of the sea bottom, the underground and the surface waters (live and not live). This sole and exclusive right also includes the production of energy from the water, from currents and wind. Furthermore, the coastal state has jurisdiction as regards the creation and use of artificial islands (offshore oilrigs), installations and systems for protection and preservation of the marine environment. On the condition that the activities are not incompatible with the sovereignties given to the coastal states in the financial zone, the Convention allows other states the right to carry out activities in the zone in accordance with the principles of the freedom of open waters,.

The text of the Convention is - at least within the field of environment - regarded as reflecting the general international common law. Denmark therefore uses the guidelines set in the Chapter of the Convention concerning enforcement of environmental rules towards foreign ships, notwithstanding that Denmark is not a party to the Convention.

Relations to the EU

On 7 December 1984, the European Community signed the marine law convention of the UN. Besides, on 28 July 1994 the EC signed the agreement on use of Chapter XI in the Convention. The EC ratified the Convention and the special agreement on use of Chapter XI in the Convention of 1 April 1998.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Environmental Law and the Environment, Petricia W. Birnie, Alan E. Boyle, Clarendon Press, Oxford

3.2.5 The Geneva Convention on Long-range Cross-Border Air Pollution of 13 November 1979, with Protocols

Purpose and Origin

The final protocol of the Helsinki Convention in 1975 among others contained a proposal from the Soviet side of arranging European conferences on the cooperation within environment, energy, and transport.

On this basis, in 1976 the ministers of the environment of the Nordic countries decided to propose a European Convention with a view to reducing the air pollution, especially the pollution by sulphur compounds. The Nordic countries established a working group, which in 1978 could present to the UN's Economic Committee for Europe (ECE) a draft European Convention on reduction of long-range cross-border air pollution.

After long negotiations in the ECE, 34 countries and the EU Commission signed the Convention in November 1979. At the same time, a resolution was signed; the purpose of which was - until the Convention had been ratified - to implement the Convention on an intermediary basis, first and foremost with regard to sulphur compounds.

The first meeting in the temporary executive organ for the Convention took place in 1980. Here a working group was formed, which should clarify the impacts of the sulphur pollution.

The ECE Convention came into force on 16 March 1983, and the first meeting in the executive group was held in June the same year.

Geographic limits and Contracting Parties

The member states of the ECE and states with consultation status with the ECE can accept the Convention and protocols. It can also be accepted by the regional and financial integration organisations, which have been created by sovereign countries that are members of the ECE.

The convention has now been ratified/accepted by 44 member countries, including the Baltic countries and the European Union. Information on contracting parties in connection with the protocols is available in connection with the description of these.

Organisation and Decision Process

The work of the convention is controlled in accordance with Article 10 of an executive organ.

The executive organ meets once a year. At the meetings, information is given on relevant activities from the annual meeting in the Financial Commission for Europe of the UN. Besides, information is given on - and decisions are to the extent necessary taken concerning - ongoing activities both in the subjacent groups and in other groups within the ECE. The work plan for the coming year is discussed and agreed upon, and the budget for EMEP is approved.

During the past years, a structure of formal working groups and similar organs has been built up, and more informal meetings are taking place between experts.The primary groups under the executive organ are in 1998:

	The effect group, the group for control of the EMEP programme, the strategy group (negotiation organ)
	The group for technologies etc. for reduction of emissions

These groups have all been breeding with subjacent groups for environmental impacts, health, measurement and calculation tasks, mapping, and technology and economy.

Fields of Activities

The Convention is a framework convention that needs to be filled out by more operational tasks. Presently, 7 protocols have been prepared and signed, of which 5 have been ratified/accepted:

The Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe, EMEP was established in 1977. The protocol on longterm financing of EMEP was signed in 1984 and came into force in 1988.The countries in the Baltic region have ratified it. The financing of EMEP consists of obligatory annual contributions and voluntary contributions.The main purpose of EMEP is to give the member countries information on disposition and concentration of air polluting substances, as well as the quantity and the importance of long-range air pollution. The programme has three main elements: Collection of emission data, measurement of the precipitation quality, and modelling and calculation of the atmospheric migration of the air pollution. The figures from EMEP have been used to describe the air pollution in the Baltic region in Chapter 2.5.2.

The Helsinki Protocol on reduction of the sulphur emissions by at least 30% during the period 1980-1993 was signed in 1985. The countries that ratified the protocol reduced their total sulphur emission by 52% in the period 1980-1993. All of the Baltic countries, except for Estonia, have ratified the protocol.

The Sofia Protocol on NO_x emissions was signed in 1988 and has now been ratified by 24 countries and the EU. 18 countries have met the requirements of the protocol on stabilising their NO_x emissions in 1994 in relation to 1987.The USA have met the stabilisation requirement as well, but based on the year 1978. Some of the remaining countries can not be assessed at the moment due to insufficient data.

The Geneva Protocol on reduction of VOC emissions (volatile organic compounds) was signed in 1991. The protocol came into force in September 1997. It obliges the countries to reduce their VOC emissions by 30%. The background for this protocol is first and foremost that at the presence of sunlight and NO_x,VOC produce ozone, which has hazardous impacts on both human health and ecosystems.

The Oslo Protocol on further reduction of sulphur emissions was signed in 1994. It came into force in August 1998. It is based on the concept of critical impact and application of the best available technology. As its basic obligation, the protocol contains emission limits from 30-87% of the 1980 SO₂ emissions. The target year is 2000, but for some countries supplemented by target figures for 2005 and 2010. The longterm target of the protocol is to reach the depositions that do not exceed critical impact, see Chapter 2.5.5. The emission limits mentioned above correspond to a partial objective of closing the gap between critical impact, which may vary from one area to the other, and the actual deposition in 1990 by 60%.

The Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Compounds (POP) was signed in June 1998. The purpose of the protocol is to control, reduce or eliminate discharges, emissions and loss of POPs to the environment.The production and use of some substances are forbidden. For other substances, their use has been widely restricted, whereas for some POPs, which are produced unintentionally by incineration and industrial processes, emission reductions are introduced, which are related to a year of reference. The protocol comprises 16 POPs. In connection with the protocol, 18 countries and the European Communities agreed upon a declaration laying restrictions on another 2 POPs (short-chained chlorinated paraffin and pentachlorophenol).

The Aarhus Protocol on heavy metals was signed in June 1998.The objective of the protocol is to reduce the emissions from a number of industrial processes and incineration processes (energy production, road transport and incineration of waste). The protocol sets limit values for stationary sources and guidelines for use of the best available technology. Besides, the protocol contains a requirement on phasing out of lead added to petrol and means for reduction of heavy metals from certain products, for instance mercury in batteries. A declaration in which the phasing-out time for lead added to petrol was the year 2005, was signed by 32 countries.

27 member countries signed the Göteborg Protocol on acidification, eutrophication, and production of ozone at the soil surface on 1 December 1999, including USA and Canada. The protocol contains environmental quality objectives for the three mentioned environmental problems with reduction requirements for the four polluting substances included in the processes, i.e. SO₂, No_x, NH₃ and VOC.

Relations to the EU

The EU takes part in the convention and a number of protocols.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

ECE's home page:

www.unece.org

3.2.6 The Vienna Convention for Protection of the Ozone Layer - International Agree ments on Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985)

Purpose and Origin

The Vienna Convention for protection of the ozone layer is a framework convention from 1985, which was created under the UN Environment Programme, UNEP.The Montreal Protocol of 1987, which has later been revised or modified five times, filled out the Convention.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Vienna Convention and belonging protocols are global and open to all the member states of the UN. In the middle of 1999, more than 160 countries had accepted the Vienna Convention and the Montreal protocol, including all countries in the Baltic region, which - except for Estonia - have also accepted the first modification to the Montreal Protocol.

The second modification to the protocol was accepted by all of the countries of the Baltic area, except for Russia and Estonia.

Only Norway, Canada, Chile and Korea have at present accepted the latest modification of the Montreal Protocol.

Organisation and Decision Process

The Vienna Convention is the first environmental convention, which, according to its contents, requires a continuous revision in the form of protocols, based on expert reports. This model has been an example for the solution of other global environmental problems.

The individual revisions of the Montreal Protocol relating to substances that destroy the ozone layer, have to be ratified individually. Countries are therefore only bound by the revisions that they have ratified. An annual meeting of the parties is held, at which decisions are made which are binding for everybody.

Fields of Activities

The Vienna Convention, 1985

The Convention is by and large a declaration of intent, but it also includes cooperation on research and exchange of information. At the same time, the convention is the necessary basis for the Montreal Protocol.

The most important point of the protocol is that it is revised regularly. The revision takes place based on scientific, technical, environmental, and financial assessments prepared by the panels of experts of the Montreal Protocol. This has led to a dynamic protocol, which has developed concurrently with new scientific findings and technological innovations.

The Montreal Protocol, 1987

The original protocol of 1987 only contains weak, binding agreements on reduction of the use and production of GFCs and halogens in industrialised countries. More than 160 countries have ratified the 1987 protocol.

The 1990 Revision of the Montreal Protocol

The control of CFCs and halogens was made much more stringent and other CFCs, tetrachloromethane and 1,1,1- trichloroethana were included in the control. More than 120 countries have ratified this revision.

Besides, an intermediary 'ozone foundation' was established for the period 1990- 93 for payment of extra costs for the countries under development in connection with introduction of technology entailing reduction or termination of the production and use of substances destroying the ozone layer.

The 1992 Revision of the Montreal Protocol

The control of CGCs, halogens, tetrachloromethane, and 1,1,1-trichloro-ethane was made much more stringent. Besides, HCFCs, HBFCs and methyl bromide were included, and for industrialised countries, revision of HFCFs and methyl bromide was agreed upon. All well-known, important substances that destroy the ozone layer are now included under the protocol.

Further, a mechanism or determination of 'essential' use was introduced, i.e. absolutely necessary use of certain substances in accordance with their phasing-out date. The mechanism includes that the individual parties make proposals, the panel for technology and economy assess the proposals, and the parties decide which types of use should be regarded as 'essential'.The 'ozone foundation' was made permanent (see later in this chapter). More than 80 countries have ratified this revision.

The 1995 Revision of the Montreal Protocol

For industrialised countries, the revision of HCFCs and methyl bromide was made more stringent. For countries under development, a phasing-out of the majority of substances was agreed upon, but for methyl bromide only a 'freezing' of the consumption. However, there are essential exceptions from the revision of methyl bromide. These exceptions comprise various objectives of 'quarantine' (the expression covers handling of goods, which are sent from one place to another in order to impede the distribution of NO_xious animals).

For the industrialised countries, the phasing out of methyl bromide was made more stringent. For countries under development, it was decided to phase out methyl bromide with a delay of 10 years compared to the industrialised countries. Only a small number of countries have ratified this revision.

The 1999 Revision of the Montreal protocol

The first steps for reducing the exceptions for methyl bromide to 'quarantine' were taken. A new substance - chlore bromomethane - was forbidden from 2002 - the production of CFCs, halogens, and methyl bromide in the industrialised countries for use in the countries under development is being phased out and will be stopped in 2010. The production of HCFCs is revised.

The Present Status

The results of the efforts have so far been good.The consumption of substances destroying the ozone layer has been reduced considerably - by approx. 80% converted to the ozone layer destroying effect, primarily in the industrialised countries, and total abolition of the substances in both industrialised countries and countries under development has been agreed upon.

The consumption of various substances/ groups of substances must be in accordance with the 1997 revision of the protocol and must be reduced and abolished in the following order:

Financing and Resources

The Ozone Fund has been established, which at present has approx. 150 million USD annually for financing. Every third year, the parties decide which amount of money shall be given to the fund during the next 3-year period. The industrialised countries, the payments of the individual countries being determined according to the UN-scale, pay the money.The money is used for projects in the developing countries for covering extra costs for termination of the production and use of substances destroying the ozone layer. A committee has been set up for assessment of the projects; this committee consists of 14 members, 7 from industrialised countries and 7 from developing countries.

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has established an ozone window through which 'poor' industrialised countries may receive financial support. For instance, the former Soviet Republics receive project support from GEF's ozone window.

The parties have selected UNEP, UNDP (United Nations Development Program), UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organisation) and the World Bank as responsible for monitoring the implementation of the projects.

Relations to the EU

The EU is part of the Fund, but they have no voting rights. All member countries have ratified the second revision and three member countries have ratified the third revision (Luxembourg, Spain, and Germany).

The rules have been implemented in the Union by ordinance.

Sources

Danish Environmental protection Agenc

UNEP's home page: www.unep.org

3.2.7 The Climate Convention (1992)

Purpose and Origin

The UN's Framework Convention of 9 May 1992 about climate changes (UNFCCC) came into force on 21 March 1994 after 50 countries had ratified the Convention. The long-term objectives of the Convention is that the atmospheric concentrations of green-house gasses caused by human beings should be stabilised at a level which prohibits dangerous human intervention into the climate system.

In principle, the climate convention comprises all greenhouse gasses created by human beings, which are not controlled by the Montreal Protocol (see chapter 3.2.6). Normally, 6 greenhouse gasses are referred to. The natural greenhouse gasses, i.e. carbon dioxide, methane, and laughing gas, and the industrially produced fluorine hydrocarbons, i.e. the HFCs, the PFCs, and sulphur hexaflouride.

The obligations of the Convention, as far as reduction of the emission of greenhouse gasses is concerned, are not sufficient for fulfilling the long-term objective. Therefore the Convention was supplemented by the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997, which is only expected to come into force during the next decade.

Geographic Limits and Con tracting Parties

The Convention and the protocol are both global. By 10 October 1998, the Climate Convention had been ratified in 176 countries, including all Baltic countries.

Organisation and Decision Process

The upper decision-making organ is the parties' conference, which is held once every year.The parties' conference makes decisions both concerning businessrelated matters such as the budget, and the more political matters such as modification of the convention and new protocols. So far no rules of procuration have been adopted for the parties' conference, and therefore not concerning voting rules and decision processes either. The decisions have been made by consensus.

Two subsidiary bodies have been established for preparation of the parties' conference: The Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) and the Subsidiary Body or Scientific Technological Advice (SBSTA).  These subsidiary organisations meet twice a year.

The Bureau of Convention comprices a Chairman, representatives from the five regional groups, the small island states, and the chairmen of the two subsidiary organs.

Fields of Activities

Besides the earlier mentioned longterm objective, the climate convention includes a long series of obligations towards the countries that have ratified the convention.

The general obligations among others concern a list of surveys of the emission of greenhouse gasses, presentation of programmes for reduction of the emission of greenhouse gasses, protection of CO₂ stockpiles and drainage, promotion of the scientific research within the climate area and promotion of the knowledge of the population about and awareness of the climate changes.

The general obligations also include sending so-called national communication, in which a long series of national conditions with relation to the obligations of the countries shall be described. For the industrialised countries, these are especially emission surveys, programs for reduction of the emission of greenhouse gasses, and the expectations concerning future emissions.

For the industrialised countries, special obligations prevail. As far as the emission of greenhouse gasses is concerned, the industrialised countries have to stabilise their emissions in 2000 compared to 1990. The industrialised countries also have to make the necessary resources available in order for the developing countries to meet their obligations and have their expenses covered for adaptations to the climate changes. In order for the financial and sociological development of the developing countries to take place on a more sustainable basis, the industrialised countries have also bound themselves to promote and finance the transfer of sustainable technology and knowhow.

Finally, the convention contains a provision that the obligations of the countries -and especially the obligations of the industrialised countries, with regard to the emission of greenhouse gasses - must be looked into regularly with a view to meeting the longterm objective of the convention.

The Kyoto Protocol

The objective of the Kyoto Protocol is an intensification of the requirements of the climate convention, especially to the industrialised countries' emissions of greenhouse gasses. The stabilisation obligation of the climate convention was found to be far from sufficient for fulfilling the longterm objective, and the central part of the protocol is a concretisation and intensification of the obligations of the countries as far as the emission of greenhouse gasses is concerned.

The obligations are indicated as requirements to the emission of 6 greenhouse gasses, calculated in average values for the period 2008-2012 compared to 1990. The total reduction is estimated at a little more than 5%. A certain differentiation of the obligations has taken place. The EU countries and the Central and Eastern European Countries must reduce their emissions by 8%, the USA by 7%, and Japan and Canada by 6%. Russia and Ukraine must stabilise their emissions, whereas other industrialised countries such as Australia, Norway and Iceland due to special national conditions may increase their emissions by up to 10%.

The EU has -as for the Convention - selected to meet the reduction requirement in common. Consequently, within the EU a special scale has been developed including the contributions of the individual countries..

The Kyoto Protocol allows the possibility of trade in emission ratios, entries on the credit side for investments in projects in other industrialised countries and in the developing countries, and inclusion of CO₂ intakes in forests. This should make the industrialised countries' reductions of the emission as cost-effective as possible. The stipulations for use of these co-called Kyoto mechanisms are being negotiated.

The Kyoto Protocol will not come into force until it has been ratified by at least 55 countries. Among these countries, the number of industrialised countries must be so high that their CO₂ emissions represent 55% of the emissions of the industrialised countries in 1990. Considering that the CO₂ outlet in the USA and Russia represented 36% and 17%, respectively, in total 53%, the coming into force of the protocol will depend on these two countries.

Present and Future Strategy

The climate panel of the UN has in 1995 estimated that if the concentration in the atmosphere of the most important greenhouse gas, CO₂, is to be stabilised at the present level, immediate global reductions of between 50% and 70% will be required. Consequently, he obligations by which the industrialised countries have bound themselves are far from sufficient for meeting the long-term objective of the convention. To this comes that on a long-term basis, also the emissions from developing countries shall be subject to reductions.

It is the strategy of the EU within the climate convention that as soon as possible the parties will decide on a concretisation as to the level at which the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere shall be stabilised.

Relations to the EU

The European Communities have ratified the climate convention and signed the Kyoto protocol. The European Commission participates as a full member in the work of the two instruments.

During the negotiations under the Convention / The Protocol, the opinions of the EU are co-ordinated by the presidency, which carries out negotiations on behalf of the European Communities.

Sources

The Danish Environmental protection Agency

Internet: www.ciesin.org

3.2.8 The Washington Convention - the Convention of 3 March 1973 on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

Purpose and Origin

The purpose of the Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES, is to protect endangered wild fauna and flora by control of the international trade in these.

Geographic Limitation and Con tracting Parties

The convention is global and has been signed by 144 countries, including the Baltic countries, except for Lithuania, which however meets the requirements for issuing similar permits.

Organisation and Decision Process

A conference of the parties is held approx. every second year.

The conference of the parties is the decision making organ of the convention. The UNEP is in charge of the secretariat function.

The Scientific Council is expected to meet every third month in connection with recommendations as preparations for the participation of the Agency in EU's Scientific Survey Group for protection of wild fauna and flora by control of the trade herein.

Field of Activities

More than 3,100 species of animals and 35,000 plants are included in CITES. The species of fauna and flora are included into three lists: List No. I (the most endangered species), list No. 2 (the endangered species), and list No. III (the locally endangered species).Within the EU, four lists are taken into account: Appendix A, B, C and D, where Appendix A-C primarily concerns Lists I-III of the Convention. Appendix D comprises species for which just an overview of the number of imports to the EU is needed.Trade in the species mentioned in List No. It is forbidden.Trade in the species included in lists No. II and III may take place in a controlled way, so that the trade is not detrimental to the survival of the species in question in nature. The primary control in order to reduce the number of illegal transactions of species included under CITES takes place at the external borders of the European Community. Besides, especially the trade in species included in Appendix A within the European Community is being controlled. This control is undertaken in co-operation with the police and customs authorities.

An essential side of the implementation of CITES is information to the population. Current preparation and distribution of information material to interested parties do this.

Present and Future Strategy

On international level, a current revision and adaptation of the Washington Convention/ CITES take place. Specifically, it has been decided that all species of sturgeon are now included under the Washington Convention/CITES, i.e. the exportation of real caviar is now subject to the permit requirements of the Convention. This has been decided realising that Russia is no longer able to monitor the catches of sturgeon in the Caspian Sea and the illegal catches and exportation of caviar are now threatening the survival of the species.

Both the international CITES secretariat and the contracting parties are aware of the resource related problems related to an efficient implementation of the Washington Convention/CITES in the Eastern European countries in the Baltic Region and Russia. Within the framework of the EU, the CITES authorities from future EU member countries will be offered to participate as observers in a future meeting in the Administrative Committee of the EU for the Washington Convention/CITES.

Relations to the EU

The EU has implemented the Convention by two regulations: The Council's regulation No. 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on protection of wild fauna and flora by control of the trade herein and the Commission's regulation No. 939/97 of 26 May 1997 on implementation regulations in connection with the Council's regulation No. 338/97 on protection of wild fauna and flora by control of the trade herein.The consequence of the new EC regulations is that the European Communities have one of the most restrictive implementations of CITES in the world. On EU level, quarterly meetings are held in the administration committee and research committee, at which decisions are currently made related to the implementation of the regulations in the EU.

Sources

The Danish Forest and Natural Protection Agency

www.cites.org

Sarah Fitzgerald (1989): International Wildlife Trade:Whose business is it? World Wildlife Fund. 459 p.Washington D.C.

Fleming, Elizabeth H. (1994): The Implementation and Enforcement of CITES in the European Union. A TRAFFIC Europe Discussion Paper. TRAFFIC Europe, Brussels.

3.2.9 The Bonn Convention on protection of Migratory Species of Wild Fauna (1979)

Purpose and Origin

The Bonn Convention was adopted in 1979, but it only came into force in 1983. The purpose of the convention is to strengthen the protection of migrating wild animals, which regularly cross the national borders.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is a global agreement, which at present has 54 contracting parties, including the following countries in the Baltic area, which have ratified the Bonn Convention: Denmark, Finland, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and Germany.

Organisation and Decision Process

Conferences of the parties are held at intervals of 2-3 years.The conference of the parties is the decision-making organ of the Convention. UNEP is in charge of the secretarial function. A scientific council is connected to the Convention, for which each of the parties can select a qualified expert. Besides, the conference of the parties selects a number of qualified experts to the council. The council is among others meant to attract the attention of the parties towards all questions related to the objective of the convention.

Fields of Activities

The Convention assures that the necessary measures are taken to protect species that do not have a favourable population status, and endangered species (List No. I of the Convention). The parties must, by taking the necessary measures, try to prevent migrating parties from being endangered.

Besides, the parties must try to make agreements on protection and administration of species included under List II of the Convention. The Convention makes guidelines as to how such agreements should be made. It is among others determined that the agreement must cover the extension of the entire migrating species in question, and that the agreement must be open for acceptance of all states in which the species in question is found, regardless of whether they are contracting parties to the Convention.

The most important objective of the convention is to further signing of regional agreements concerning protection of the individual migrating species or groups of animals mentioned in Lists I and II of the Convention.

Under the Convention, agreements on protection of the following species have been signed:

	Bats in Europe
	Small cetaceans in the Baltic and the North Sea
	Seals in the South West Jutland coastal mudflats

Present and Future Strategy

The future objective of the convention is to obtain better coverage on a global level, by more countries than the present 54 accepting the Convention. Especially in relation to protection of the migrating fauna species of the Baltic region, it is necessary that the Baltic countries become parties to the Convention.

In order to protect the water birds in the Baltic area, it is furthermore regarded as essential that the Baltic countries sign the water bird agreement. It is important to the future of the convention that regional agreements are made in other parts of the world, about common protection measures etc. of the migrating species, for which the convention seeks to improve the conditions.

Relations to the EU

The EU is a member of the Convention.

Sources

Danish Forest and Natural Protection Agency

The home page of the Bonn Convention: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/cms

3.2.10 The Ramsar Convention - Convention on Wetlands of International Importance as Habitats for especially Water Birds and Fish (1971)

Purpose and Origin

The Ramsar Convention of 2 February 1971 on protection of wetlands of international importance as habitats for especially water birds and fish is a result of UNESCO's work.

The Ramsar convention is the eldest worldwide convention, which has a broad natureprotecting objective, i.e. the protection of wetlands and their characteristic flora and fauna. The Convention indicates that wetlands represent a resource of great financial, cultural, scientific, and recreational value, and that the wetlands would be irreplaceable.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Ramsar Convention is a global agreement, which has been signed by 112 countries. All states of the Baltic region have signed and ratified the Convention, except for Belarus.

Organisational Structure and Deci sion process

The Ramsar Convention is today administered by a secretariat, the Ramsar Convention Bureau, and by a Standing Committee. The secretariat must at least once every third year call a conference of the parties. The conference of the parties has a number of overall tasks, which are further specified and determined in the convention, with a view to review and further the fulfilment of the convention.

The conference of the parties has authority to adopt recommendations and resolutions with a view to further the effects of the convention.The conference of the parties may for instance discuss fulfilment of the convention, modify lists, assess information on modifications of the ecological character of wetlands, and direct concrete recommendations to the parties. The conference of the parties may also request relevant international organisations to prepare reports and statistical surveys of conditions related to wetlands, which are of predominantly international character.

The conference of the parties shall determine and currently verify the financial statutes of the convention, and agree on a budget for the following accounts period. Each of the contracting parties represented at the conference has one vote, since recommendations, resolutions and decisions are adopted by simple majority among the parties present and voting, normally however by consensus. Contributions are made to the budgets of the convention according to a contribution scale that has to be agreed upon unanimously.

Fields of Activities

The Convention text's definition of wetlands is very broad. It comprises both lakes and marches etc. and brackish and salt wetlands, the depth of which does not exceed 6 meters. A wetland is considered to be of international importance if:

	20,000 water birds regularly are in the areas,
	1% of a population of a species or subspecies of water birds regularly is in the area,
	the area is of importance to originally indigenous species of fish, in certain stages of the life cycle of fish
	representative species of fish in the wetlands give an important contribution to the global biological diversity, or
	the area is an important foraging, spawning, reproduction or rest area for survival of certain fish populations The countries that have signed the convention must select at least one wetland to the list of internationally important wetlands.

The inclusion of a wetland into the list does not mean an intervention in the exclusive, sovereign rights of the country.There is however an international obligation for the country to make and implement planning with a view to further the protection and make sure that the use of the wetlands takes place in an economically sustainable way.The administration of the Ramsar areas shall thus both take into account the ecological values of the areas and any wishes to use the resources and recreational values of the area.

The countries also bind themselves in general to protect wetlands and water birds within the borders of the country, for instance by creating nature refuges in wetlands - regardless of whether these areas have been selected as Ramsar areas - and by ensuring a convenient supervision of wetlands. There is also an obligation to inform the convention of changes in the ecological character of selected wetlands.

The convention's worldwide importance to the protection of wetlands has been increased during late years, among others because more and more developing countries have signed the convention. In this connection, it is especially of importance that recommendations have been adopted on protection of mangrove/march areas, environmental impact assessments, the influence of the local population on the preparation of administration plans, training in the administration of wetlands, and the opening of a regional office in the Ramsar Bureau.

The Ramsar Convention is working closely together with the Convention on Biological Diversity. On 19 January 1996 a Memorandum of Co-operation was sent out between the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Rams Convention, whereupon the secretariats of these conventions shall co-operate, exchange information, coordinate work programmes and urge the parties to protect and administer the existing wetlands in a reasonable way.

The Bureau has also co-operated with the Global Environment Facility, which has adopted an Operational Strategy, in which there is a special reference to the Ramsar Convention in connection with support to the protection of international wetlands.

Present and Future Strategy

The mission of the convention is protection and sustainable use of wetlands through national actions and international co-operation in order in this way to contribute to a sustainable development. The Convention will, during the year to come, work on extending a sustainable use of wetlands, increase the attention towards wetlands, make sure that all Ramsar areas obtain the required protection, increase the number of selected wetlands, and mobilise international co-operation and financing of protection of wetlands.

Relations to the EU

All of the EU countries are parties to the Ramsar Convention. However, the EU as such is not a party to the convention, which does not include stipulations that allow such membership. In reality, there is wide EU competence within the fields of the Ramsar Convention, first and foremost through the obligations of the Birds Protection and Habitat Directive to protect important types of nature and species of fauna and flora in general

Sources

The Danish Forest and Natural Protection Agency

http://www.ramsar.org

3.2.11 The Bern Convention - Convention on Protection of the European Fauna and its Natural Habitats (1979)

Purpose and Origin

The Bern Convention was prepared and signed in 1979 by the then member states of the Council of Europe.

The Convention is based on the fact that the numbers of many species of fauna and flora were in rapid decline or directly in danger of extermination. A formalised cross-border co-operation was required, in order to protect the species of fauna and flora and their natural habitats in an efficient way.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global, and among the countries in the Baltic region, the following have ratified the Convention: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Sweden, and Germany. Also the EU has ratified the Convention.

Organisation and Decision Process

The overall administration of the convention is taken care of by 'The Standing Committee', to which all contracting parties may send a delegation, i.e. a kind of parties' conference. 'The Standing Committee' is responsible for the following:

	The Committee must held at least biannual meetings, and when a meeting is desired by a majority of the parties
	The Committee is responsible for the revision of lists, recommendations for measures to be taken by the contracting parties, and proposals for improvement of the convention
	The Committee has the competence, at its own initiative, to arrange meetings of expert group members

The daily administration of the convention is the responsibility of the secretariat of the European Council.

Fields of Activities

It is the objective of the convention to attract more attention to the threatened species. The fields of activities are expressed in four lists, which are attached as appendices to the Convention:

	strongly protected flora (List I),
	strongly protected fauna (List II),
	protected fauna (List III), and
	forbidden methods of killing and catch, and other methods of exploitation of fauna (List IV).

As a consequence of the Convention, the parties are obliged to arrange for protection of the species mentioned in the lists, and to try to include regard to the species in the other administration and planning.

Besides the tasks of the Convention itself, the Standing Committee is in charge of Action Theme 11, 'Action for Threatened Species' under 'The Pan-European Biological Strategy for Landscape Diversity'.

Present and Future Strategy

The strategy of the Bern Convention is that on a long-term basis, a network of habitats should be developed (The Emerald Network), the purpose of which is to consider the interests of the species of flora and fauna mentioned in the lists of the Convention, and their habitats.

It is estimated that the Birds' Protection and Habitat Directive of the EU and the consequent selection of Birds' Protection and Habitat Areas, which will together form the so-called NATURA 2000 Network, will come to play a major role in safeguarding the habitats for species included in the Bern Convention lists.The intention is therefore that the network should be extended in close relation to NATURA 2000.

Relations to the EU

The EU is party to the Bern Convention. As a consequence of the EU Birds' Protection Directive and the EU Habitat Directive, implementing great parts of the convention, the competence covers practically the entire area.

Sources

The Danish Forest and Natural protection Agency

The official home page of the Bern Convention:

http://www.conventions.coe.int

3.2.12 The World heritage Convention - the Convention on Protection of the Cultural and Natural herit age of the World (1972)

Purpose and Origin

The background for UNESCO's adoption of the Convention of 16 November 1972 on protection of the World's cultural and natural heritage was the realisation that the world's natural and cultural heritage can not be taken sufficiently into account on the national level.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The World's Convention is global and has been signed by in total 156 states, including the following countries in the Baltic Region: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Germany.

Organisation and Decision Process

An inter-state Committee has been established for administration of the convention, including 21 members selected from the member states, on the condition that an equal representation must be assured between the different parts and cultures of the world.

The member states are under obligation to nominate national subjects for world heritage and apply for inclusion into the list. Once applications from the individual countries have been submitted, the application must be approved by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), before the committee can approve the nomination.

Based on information from the individual member countries, the committee prepares a world inheritance list, which must be published at least every second year.

The secretarial functions of the committee are the responsibility of UNESCO.

Fields of Activities

The most important field of activity of the convention is to create attention and protect the elements that the committee finds to be of such universal importance that they are enEnvironmental Co-operation in the Baltic Regiond to be included into the world inheritance list.

As an appendix to the list, the committee makes a list of endangered world cultural and natural inheritance. The purpose of this list is to attract extra attention for the areas, which are in actual and potential danger of destruction, for instance because of natural catastrophes or war. Revised Version of this list is sent out once every year.

Present and Future Strategy

The strategy of the Convention has during late years developed to give more emphasis to co-ordinating the work with other international conventions, which have more or less identical purposes. Great efforts are made to attract countries that have not yet become members of the Convention. Also a global strategy has been established, aiming at better representation of the cultural inheritance in countries of the third world and better representation of natural areas and especially areas, which have a combination of natural and cultural values.

There are no specific cultural measures for the Baltic area, but with the Baltic countries' ratification of the treaty in the 90'ies, a basis has been created for coordinated efforts for the region. Such coordinated efforts for the region may be an extension of the co-operation developed by the Nordic countries. This co-operation has among others resulted in a test project, in connection with which a Nordic World heritage office has been opened in Oslo as per 1 January 1996, the purpose of which is to co-ordinate the efforts across the borders.

Relations to the EU

The EU is not an independent party to the Convention, but all 15 EU countries have signed the Convention.

Sources

The Danish Forest and Natural protection Agency

Internet: www.unesco.org/whc/nwhc

3.2.13 The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)

Purpose and Origin

The UNEP Convention on biological diversity was signed at the Rio Conference in 1992. Biological diversity or biodiversity is the multitude of live organisms in all environments, both on land and in water, and the ecological correlation that the organisms are part of. Biodiversity both comprises the variety within and between the species, and the multitude of ecosystems.

There are three principal objectives of the Convention:To maintain the biological diversity, use the biological resources in a sustainable way, and assure a reasonable and fair distribution of the advantages that are a result of the exploitation of the genetic resources.

The main obligations of the convention are the following:

Development of national biodiversity strategies;

	Identification and supervision of the biological diversity;
	Establishment of protected areas, reestablishment of impoverished or degraded eco-systems and control of setting out foreign species;
	Implementation of training and research programmes concerning maintenance and sustainable use of biodiversity and support to such programmes in the developing countries;
	Preparation of environmental impact assessments in preparation of projects that may reduce the biodiversity;
	Technical and scientific cooperation, especially with the developing countries, with a view to implementing the convention;
	Safeguarding and promotion of the access to genetic resources;
	Safeguarding of the access to and transfer of technology;
	Exchange of information between the parties about all subjects of importance to the biodiversity;
	Promotion of public knowledge of and attention towards biodiversity, technical and scientific co-operation, especially with the developing countries, with a view to implementing the convention and the exchange of information between the parties on all subjects of importance for the biodiversity.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global and open to all member countries of the UN. More than 150 countries, including all countries of the Baltic region, have signed and ratified the Convention. Also the EU has signed and ratified the Convention,

Organisation and Decision Process

The Conference of the parties is the highest decision-making organ. Besides, it is an auxiliary organ for scientific and technological consultancy services, which is meant to give convenient support to the conference of the parties and possibly their auxiliary organs in connection with the implementation of the convention. This organ is open for participation of all parties and is inter-disciplinary. It comprises government representatives having competence within the relevant fields of expertise.

The secretariat, which is represented by UNEP, co-ordinates all activities with other relevant international organs and is in charge of normal secretarial functions in the form of reports on the implementation of its functions and preparation of the conferences of the parties.

Fields of Activities

The convention has very much contributed to put the biological diversity on the global agenda as a global environmental problem. A number of measures have been initiated under the convention, within the various fields of expertise covered by the Convention. A long series of states have prepared national status lists of the biological diversity and prepared strategies and action plans for obtaining protection and sustainable use of biological diversity.

Under the Convention, a protocol on safety in connection with transfer of genetically modified organisms from one country to another, the so-called Bio-safety protocol, was signed in January 2000.

An expert panel was set up in May 1998, which should look into the problems of access to genetic resources and the conditions for fair distribution of advantages in connection with use of genetic resources. A working group, with participation of the original people, should make proposals for a work programme to protect the traditional know-how, etc. of the original people. There were further set up work programmes for maintenance and sustainable use of biological diversity in freshwater eco-systems, forests, and marine and coastal zones.

Present and Future Strategy

As a global convention, it covers a variety of subjects. The convention is based on cooperation between the contracting parties and co-operation between other conventions and organisations on an international level.

The convention is thus an initiator and a platform for a dialogue on maintenance and sustainable use of biological diversity. The objective of the convention is to a wide extent to join and include the biological diversity in an socio-economic context. Therefore an essential objective is the incorporation of regards to biodiversity in sectors and within different political fields. Since all of the Baltic countries have signed and ratified the convention, the convention is highly relevant for the future work for maintenance and sustainable use of biological diversity.

Sources

The Danish Forest and Natural protection Agency

Internet: http://www.biodiv.org

3.2.14 The Helsinki Convention - the Convention on Protection and Use of Transboundary Water Courses and International Lakes (1992)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention on protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes (the Helsinki Convention) was elaborated by a working group on water problems, which had been set up by ECE. The Convention was signed in Helsinki on 18 March 1992 by 24 countries, including 11 EU member countries, and by the European Communities. The Convention came into force on 6 October 1996.

The purpose of the convention is to safeguard protection of the water environment, prevention and reduction of pollution of transboundary watercourses, and a rational use of the water resources.With a view to obtain this, the Convention sets the framework for bilateral and multi-lateral cooperation between the contracting parties.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

Member countries of the ECE and countries having the same status can sign the Convention. It can also be signed by regional, economic integration organisations, created by sovereign countries, which are members of the ECE. The Convention has been signed by all of the countries around the Baltic, but in August 1999 Lithuania and Poland had not yet ratified it.

Organisation and Decision process

Ordinary meetings are held every third year or at shorter intervals, if this is agreed upon in the order of business.

By consensus, the parties discuss and agree upon modifications to the convention, and they discuss and take all necessary further measures in order to carry the objectives of the convention into effect.

For parties who accept an agreed modification of the convention, the modification comes into force 90 days after the party in question has deposited his ratification document.

Fields of Activities

The convention lays guidelines for protection of the water environment and the use of the water resources.The convention also invites the parties to take the necessary measures, with a view to:

	prevent, control and reduce all pollution of wetlands, which have or may have a trans-boundary effect; make sure that the use of trans-boundary wetlands takes place with a view to an ecologically sound and rational water administration, protection of water resources and environmental protection,
	make sure that trans-boundary wetlands are used in a reasonable and fair way,
	ensure protection and, if required, restoration of ecosystems.

Besides, the parties must to the extent possible make sure that the pollution is reduced at the source and stress the principle of caution and the principle that the polluter pays.

Further, the parties shall administer the water resources in such a way that the requirements of present generations do not impede meeting the requirements of future generations.

A protocol to the Convention on water and health is expected signed in June 1999.The protocol shall ensure the protection of drinking water resources and connected aquatic eco-systems against pollution. The protection shall, according to the protocol, comprise discharges of hazardous substances, and the protection shall contribute to an efficient reduction and elimination of discharge of substances that are considered hazardous to health or to the water environment. The parties shall specifically, within the framework of the protocol, aim at safeguarding the entire population's access to drinking water and sanitary systems.

Because of the protocol on water and health, the aim of the convention is extended also to comprise health-related questions.

Present and Future Strategy

Fulfilling the objectives of the Convention should be assured through bilateral or multi lateral agreements between the parties. For instance, agreements must be made for relevant run-off areas or parts hereof with a view to harmonising politics, programs and strategies for prevention, monitoring and reduction of trans-boundary impacts, or for protection of trans-boundary wetlands and the surrounding environment influenced by such wetlands, including the sea environment.

With a view to connect social and financial development to the protection of natural eco-systems, the water resources should to the extent possible in the future be administered in an integrated way within the runoff areas, cf. draft protocol on water and health. At the same time, the administration of the water resources must take place in connection with other environmental adjustments.

Relevance to the Baltic Area

The Convention and the protocol on water and health contribute to a coherent water policy, which for a number of countries in the region, individually seen, will increase the level of protection of the environment and of human health.

A number of the major, transboundary rivers in Europe contribute considerably to the pollution of the Baltic.The reduction of the pollution of these rivers in accordance with the Convention will, individually seen, have a positive impact on the sea environment in the region. However, it is estimated that the protection of the sea environment in the Baltic is to a greater extent administered and ensured through the Helsinki Convention, which in a more concrete way lays down guidelines for protection of the sea environment against pollution from land-based sources (see also 3.3.1).

Sources

The Danish Forest and Natural Protection Agency

Economic Commission for Europe,World Health Organisation's Regional Office for Europe (1998): Draft Protocol on Water and Health to the 1992 Convention on the protection and Use of Trans-boundary Watercourses and International Lakes

Web-site, UN/ECE:
www.unece.org/env/water

3.2.15 The Convention on Transboundary Effects of Industri al Accidents (1992)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention was signed on 18 March 1992 in Finland under the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) of the UN.The purpose of the Convention is to reduce the effects of transboundary pollution in connection with industrial accidents.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention can be signed by the member states, the ECE and countries that have consultation status with the ECE. It can also be signed by regional, economic integration organisations, set up by sovereign member countries of the ECE.The Convention has been signed by 33 countries, including all countries surrounding the Baltic. Of these, however, only Germany and Norway have so far ratified the Convention.

Organisation and Decision Process

Ordinary meetings are held annually. Modifications to the Convention are decided by consensus. ECE is in charge of the secretariat in connection with conferences of the parties.

A regional co-ordination centre has been set up in Budapest, Hungary, which is in charge of the follow-up on the Convention. The centre is among others supposed to be in charge of setting up networks, collection of information and experience within the field, development of methods and capacity building in the new Eastern European countries.

Fields of Activities

The Convention prescribes some obligations concerning co-operation across the boundaries for the case that an industrial accident in one country might have impacts on human beings or the environment in another country.

The consequences of a major industrial accident can be divided in the consequences that arise in immediate connection with the accident and the more long-term consequences. The Convention primarily concerns measures to be taken immediately in connection with the industrial accident. The Convention does not include nuclear accidents.

The Convention obliges the countries to carry out safety surveys on industrial plants, which in case of accidents by hazardous substances may have transboundary consequences, and to take measures to reduce the impacts of any accident.

Industries that may entail transboundary impacts in connection with an industrial accident will have to give notification to the responsible authorities in their home country. In connection with the notification, the authorities will have to make sure that the authorities of neighbouring countries are informed about the risk and about the required safety measures. The member countries shall also oblige themselves to give expert assistance to other countries, in case an industrial accident happens in their country.

Relations to the EU

The EU has ratified the Convention, which must also be ratified by the member countries.

Concurrently with the preparation of the Convention, revisions of the Seveso Directive, which contains a parallel set of guidelines, have been ongoing within the EU. On this basis, the European Community has recommended the member countries to wait with the ratification of the Convention until the modified directive has been signed.

On 9 December 1996, Directive 96/82/EC on 'control of the risk of major accidents caused by hazardous substances' was signed (the Seveso II Directive). In connection with this Directive, it is the obligation of the authorities of the member countries to make sure that other member countries, which might be affected by transboundary consequences of a major accident at an industrial plant, receive sufficient information to take the necessary measures.The stipulations of the Directive fall well in line with the Convention, and in combination the two sets of guidelines make sure that information is exchanged also with the countries which are not members of the European Communities.

With regard to the requirements of the Convention concerning technical assistance to other countries in connection with industrial accidents, it is the intention that at EU level, a survey of accessible expertise in the member countries is prepared.

The Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Internet: http//www.unece.org/env/eia

UN/ECE Regional Co-ordination Centre for the Prevention of Industrial Accidents Andrassy ut. Budapest 1061, Hungary

Tel.: +36 1 342 6977
Tel./fax: +36 1 352 1768
E-mail: budcentre@ella.hu

3.2.16 The Espoo Convention - The ECE Convention on Cross Border Environmental Impact Assessments (1991)

Purpose and Origin

The ECE Convention on cross-border environmental impact assessments -the Espoo Convention - was signed on 25 February 1991 in Espoo, Finland. The Convention came into force on 10 September 1997.

The Convention is prepared realising the mutual connection between economic activities and their environmental consequences, as an emphasising of the need to ensure an environmentally justifiable and sustainable development.

The purpose is to strengthen the international co-operation on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), especially across borders. In this connection, special consideration has been given to the need early in the decision process to take the environmental factors into account in all of the relevant administrative phases. EIA is considered a necessary tool for improving the quality of information presented to the decision makers, special regard being given to a reduction of the important hazardous impacts, especially across borders.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention can be signed by the member countries of the ECE and countries, which have consultation status with the ECE. It can also be signed by regional, economic integration organisations set up by sovereign countries, which are members of the ECE.The Convention had on 5 August 1999 been signed by 26 countries, including the following Baltic countries (besides Denmark): Finland, Latvia, Poland, and Sweden. Besides, Germany and the Russian Federation have signed, but not ratified the Convention.

Organisation and Decision Process

The parties meet to the extent possible in connection with the annual meetings of the leading consultants of the ECE government within environmental and water resource related questions. Meetings are held when needed, or upon written request from one of the parties, if the request is supported by minimum one third of the parties.

Every party has one vote.There are special rules for the right to vote of integration organisations (Article 12).

The Secretariat for the Economic Commission for Europe of the UN is responsible for the secretarial functions mentioned in the Convention or determined by the parties.

Three-thirds' majorities among the parties participating in and voting at the meeting can on the basis of a special procedure, modify the Convention unanimously or under special circumstances.

Fields of Activities

The Convention includes stipulations concerning the implementation of environmental impact assessments for a number of major activities, if the activities can be considered to have an important hazardous impact on the environment across borders.

The Convention mentions 17 different activities/ projects that, if they are to be carried out, must be subjected to a procedure (a screening) in order to determine if they can be expected to have an important hazardous cross-border impact on the environment. If this is the case, the foreseen project must be subjected to the stipulations of the Convention concerning environmental impact assessments, etc. Also other activities than those included in the list can, upon agreement between the country of origin and the affected country (ies) be subjected to the stipulations of the convention.

A great part of the Convention prescribes exchange of information, hearing and consultation across borders, among others concerning measures to prevent, reduce and control hazardous environmental impacts. The parties must make sure that in the final decision, due consideration is given to the results of the environmental impact assessment and the associated remarks, as well as to the result of the consultation. The parties must in common make decisions concerning the question of supervision and subsequent analysis. If the analysis discovers essential hazardous impacts, the parties must in common discuss measures to reduce or remove this impact.

Besides assessment of the cross-border environmental impacts in connection with concrete projects, the Convention also includes stipulations concerning the parties' obligations to observe the implementation of the Convention and carry out bilateral and multilateral exchange of experience and cooperation.

The parties must have special regard to the creation or strengthening of specific research programmes.

Present and Future Strategy

At the first Conference of the parties, which was held in Oslo (May 1998), a work plan for the implementation of the Convention in the period 1998-2000 was agreed upon. The work plan comprises the following overall points:

	Examination of the strategies and policies of the parties
	Bilateral and multi-lateral aspects of cooperation
	The practical implementation of the Convention
	Participation of the public in connection with cross-border activities
	Guidelines in connection with nonobservance
	Newer development in connection with EIA and connection to other ECE Conventions
	Database of EIA
	Assessment of database
	Partnership
	Regional workshops

Relations to the EU

The EU, who is a party to the Convention, already in 1985 adopted a Directive within this field (Directive of the Council No. 85/ 337/EEC of 27 June 1985 on assessment of the impact on the environment of certain public and private projects, and modifications adopted by the Directive of the Council No. 97/11/EC of 3 March 1997).

Compared to the stipulations of the EIA Directive, the Espoo Convention includes further rules as far as consultation on cross-border impacts, due consideration, supplementary analysis, meetings, and exchange of professional experience between the parties of the convention, as well as settlement of disputes are concerned.

However, the EIA Directives include many more projects, which must also be assessed as to whether a planned project can have essential impact on the environment in another member country.

Sources

The Danish Ministry of Energy and Environment, the National Department Internet:

www.unece.org/env/eia

3.2.17 The Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decisionmaking, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (1998)

Purpose and Origin

When meeting in Sofia in 1995 for the third pan-European Conference of Ministers of the Environment, the European Ministers of the Environment agreed upon some guidelines for the environmental rights of the citizens. At the same time, it was decided that a binding Convention in international law should be made.

The pan-European Conferences of Ministers of the Environment take place under the heading 'Environment for Europe', and they are formally held within the UN Economic Council for Europe (ECE), with member countries from Europe and Northern America.

The overall purpose of the Convention is to ensure the rights of the citizens within the field of environment.This is the first international Convention of the World, which recognises people's right to live in a healthy environment, and this makes the Convention a mile stone within international law.

As something new in connection with international negotiations, the environmental organisations (the NGOs) have participated actively during the entire work with the preparation of the Convention.

The Convention was signed at the fourth Conference of the Ministers in Aarhus 23- 25 June 1998, with participation of more than 50 ministers of the Environment from entire Europe - from here the name of 'the Aarhus Convention'.

The Convention comes into force 90 days after it is ratified by 16 countries.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention can be signed by the ECE member states and by states having consultation status with the ECE. The Convention can also be signed by regional economic integration organisations, formed by sovereign member countries of the ECE.

The Convention will thus cover countries from the Atlantic in the west to Central Asia in the East. Countries with different culture and different democratic traditions, but which have agreed to strengthen the role of the citizens in the protection of nature and environment.

At present, the EU and all of the Baltic countries except for Russia have signed the Convention.

Organisation and Decision process

The parties must meet at least once every second year, and the first meeting is to be held no later than a year after the coming into force of the Convention. The parties shall use the meetings for discussing the implementation of the Convention and the experience gained. If required, subsidiary organs can be established. Modifications to the Convention are as an absolute main rule agreed upon by consensus.

NGOs, which are qualified within the area of the Convention, may at certain conditions participate in the meetings as observers.

The secretarial functions are being taken care of by the secretariat of the ECE.

Fields of Activities

Three central areas will be covered by the Convention:

	The access to information
	The right to take part in decisions
	The right to complain and have decisions tested by submission for the Courts

The Access to Information

The first central area covered by the Convention is the citizens' access to information on the environment.

It is a principle that only through access to information do people have a real opportunity to take part in our democracy. Only if you know why decisions were made - or not made - can you take part in a dialogue.

The Convention has a very broad definition of environmental information. The definition by and large includes all the information that can be related to the environment, including the life conditions of human beings.

The Convention obliges the countries to ensure that everybody has access to this information, regardless of their citizenship, nationality and place of living. Besides, cases concerning the right of access to documents must as a main rule be handled within a month.

The point of departure of the Convention is that the authorities must give access to all information on the environment. There may, however, in some cases be other public or private considerations to take, which prevents the access to certain information. This may for instance be the authorities' preliminary assessment of a case, or confidential information on the business or production secrets of an industry.

The Convention also includes what can be called 'active obligation to provide information'. It is thus not enough to give information when somebody asks for information. The authorities themselves must take the initiative to have data and information on the environment distributed.

For instance, the authorities must be in possession of up-to-date information on the environment, and the authorities must assure access to information from electronic databases and on the Internet. The authorities must also urge private persons to provide information as to which impact their activities have on the environment.

The Right to Participate

The other central field covered by the Convention is the requirement that citizens should have the right to participate in decisions within the environmental field.

The public must have influence on what is decided. Therefore, the Convention requires that the public is included in connection with concrete decisions of importance for the environment, in the same way as the citizens must be included when making plans and policies within the field of environment.

For instance, the Convention ensures that the public can participate in the decision process in connection with the placing of contaminating industries.The industries in question are further described in an appendix to the Convention.This is for instance oil refineries, iron and metal works, cement factories, various types of chemical industries, waste handling plants, wastewater treatment plants, and big poultry or pig farms. The public must also be included into the decision process in connection with other activities, if the activity may have an important impact on the environment.

The countries are bound to include the public at an early stage in the decision process, when new contaminating activities must be taken into consideration. It must among others be visible what is the subject of the application, which authority makes the decision, and how the public can participate and make remarks, for instance through public hearings.

The Convention also includes rules that the authorities must include the public in connection with preparation of plans, programmes and policies within the field of environment, and in connection with the authorities' preparation of general guidelines such as laws and orders.

The Right to Complain

The third central field covered by the Convention is that the citizens must have the right to complain and have their decisions tested by submission for the Courts.

The Convention stresses in a number of areas that both the individual citizen and organisations and industries have the right to complain.

The Convention ensures the right to complain in three situations.

1. All cases concerning the right to have access to documents within the field of environment must be allowed for testing either by submission for the Courts or for a similar independent and impartial organ, which has been set up by law, including for instance a complaints board. There must also be access to a faster and more flexible access to testing - for instance by having overall authorities or a special organ of complaints take the case into consideration.

2. Questions arising in connection with guidelines concerning participation in decisions in connection with the placing of contaminating industries must have access to testing either by submission for the Courts or a similar independent and impartial organ, which has been established by law. This right must come to the benefit of all citizens, who are affected by the decision, and the countries must recognise that the environmental organisations have, as a main rule, access to take legal action or to complain.

3. The Convention includes a broad rule, which binds the countries to ensure that the citizens have in general access to take legal action or to complain concerning questions within environmental legislation. For instance if there is a suspicion of offence against the general environmental rules in the countries. The Convention leaves to the individual countries to decide who should have this right. It is therefore not an automatic consequence of the Convention that everybody, including the environmental organisations, must in any case have access to bring an action against somebody or to complain.

In all of the mentioned situations, the Convention demands that the organ trying the decision must have competence to change the decision, and that the judgement/the decision must be justified in writing.

Relations to the EU

The EU is present implementing the Convention.

Sources

Danish Environmental protection Agency

Internet: www.unece.org/env.pp

3.2.18 The European Council's Convention on Criminal Protection of the Environment (1988)

Purpose and Origin

The Ministerial Committee of the European Council signed the convention on criminal protection of the environment on 9 September 1998.

The purpose of the Convention is to make sure that adequate criminal means are at disposal with a view to punish and impede pollution.

The reason is especially that the industrial development and the uncontrolled use of technology and use of natural resources may cause serious impacts on the environment and on human beings, fauna and flora. In order to minimise this risk, it has been found necessary to have uniform rules of punishment, also as a deterrent means and to punish crimes against the environment.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention can be signed by countries, which are members of the European Council and Canada, which country has taken part in the preparation of the Convention. The Convention comes into force once three countries have ratified it.

Fields of Activities

The Convention obliges the contracting parties to introduce specific criminal rules or to adapt the existing rules to the Convention. The Convention both concerns intentional violence of environmental law, and negligent violence. The rules only have the purpose of controlling the cases in which there has either been a danger of death or serious personal injury, or in which the violation has entailed or caused danger of serious pollution of air, soil, water, fauna, or flora. The Convention also includes rules of confiscation, reestablishment of the original environmental situation and liability to punishment of juristic persons. The sanctions are mentioned to be both penalties and imprisonment. Finally, it is determined that the contracting parties may decide that private environmental organisations shall be able to participate in criminal cases on violation included under the Convention.

Relations to the EU

The EU is not a party to the Convention, but it has been discussed at a meeting in a working group within the European Council.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

3.2.19 The Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989)

Purpose and Origin

As a follow-up on the recommendations of the Montevideo Programme (UNEP) concerning transport and handling of hazardous waste (from 1981) and on the basis of the so-called Cairo guidelines (UNEP) concerning handling of hazardous waste (from 1985), the Basel Convention on control of trans-boundary transport of hazardous waste and its removal was signed within the UN (UNEP) in Basel in 1989. The Convention came into force in May 1992. The main purpose of the Convention is to reduce the number of transports of hazardous waste. The Convention sets up a number of procedure requirements - among others the requirement of preliminary notification and approval of transports. Besides, the purpose of the Convention is to minimise the generation of waste and to make sure that the handling takes place as close to the source as possible.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

As an UNEP Convention, the Basel Convention is global. As per 4 January 2000, 134 countries and the EU have signed the Convention, including all of the Baltic countries. The USA has not yet signed the Convention.

Organisation and Decision Process

The decision-making organ of the Basel Convention is the so-called Conference of the Parties, which makes various decisions, which are thereupon implemented in subjacent working groups before the next Conference of the Parties.The Conference of the Parties meets every second year.

The Conference shall seek to make decisions unanimously. If this is not possible, 2/ 3's majority of the parties who are present and voting make decisions. The same rules of voting apply to the working groups.

At each Conference of the Parties, a 'bureau' is selected consisting of a President, three Vice-Presidents and a reporter, who is in office until the next conference, at which time a new bureau is selected. The selection takes place based on the rotary system established in UNEP, and which is based on a division of the UN countries into five regional groups. The bureau makes general guidelines for the activities of the secretariat between the Conferences of the Parties and gives advice to the secretariat.

Fields of Activities

Besides the objective of having fewer transports of waste and minimisation of the generation of waste as mentioned above, the purpose of the Convention is among others to promote transfer of technology, especially to the developing countries, in order to obtain proper handling of hazardous waste and other types of waste generated locally.

In March 1994, the Parties of the Convention agreed upon an immediate prohibition of transport of hazardous waste destined for final deposit and a prohibition of exportation for reuse no later than per 1 January 1998 from the OECD countries to the non-OECD countries (from the socalled Annex VII countries to the non-Annex VII countries).

This political decision was in 1995 followed by a real legal modification of the Convention. A new Article 4a was adopted, including the so-called prohibitions of exportation, as described above.

For this very central modification of the Convention to come into force, ¾ of the countries, which have signed the Convention, must ratify the modification. As on 4 January 2000 only 16 countries and the EU have made this ratification.

In order to ensure an operational prohibition, simultaneously with the prohibition two lists have been prepared and adopted - one concerning hazardous waste and one concerning non-hazardous waste, Appendices VIII and IX respectively.These two lists establish the technical basis for determining whether this is hazardous or nonhazardous waste, and hereby whether a given transport is subject to the prohibition or not.

Present and Future Strategy

In continuation of the results obtained from the efforts so far concerning the prohibition of export of hazardous waste from the OECD countries to the nonOECD countries and the preparation of lists of hazardous and non-hazardous waste, the future efforts will to a certain extent be concentrated on assuring the required ratification of the 'prohibition of exports' and on assuring follow-up on and penetration of the prohibition in general.

Relations to the EU

The EU countries have implemented the Convention through the so-called regulation of transport, which adjusts transboundary transport of waste, including hazardous waste.

Despite the fact that the prohibition of exports has not yet come into force, the EU has modified the regulation of transport so that the prohibition is valid for all of the EU countries.The EU is also working actively on influencing other countries to make the required ratification, so that the prohibition can obtain the intended penetration.

Sources

The Danish Environmental protection Agency

The Basel Convention. A Global Solution for Controlling Hazardous Wastes, United Nations, New York and Geneva, 1997.

Yearbook of International Environmental Law, 1990-1998.

Global Environment Diplomacy, Negotiating Environmental Agreements for the

World, 1973-1992, Ch. 7 - by Mostafa K. Tolba and Iwona Rummel-Bulska (1998 Massachusetts Institute of Technology).

The Basel Convention and Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste - by Jonathan Krueger, Briefing Paper,The Royal Institute of International Affairs, No. 45, May 1998.

The International Regulation of Transboundary Traffic in Hazardous Waste, the 1989 Basel Convention - by Katharina Kummer, International and Comparative Law Quaterly (VOL 41).

Internet: www.unep.ch/basel/index.html

3.2.20 The Convention on Preliminary Information Consent for certain Hazardous Substances (PIC) (1989 + 1998)

Purpose and Origin

The purpose of the PIC arrangement is to give the participating countries, especially the developing countries, the environmental administrations of which have a lack of resources, some help to estimate whether they should receive certain hazardous chemicals.

Since 1989, a voluntary co-operation has existed within the UN concerning information on the buying and selling of certain hazardous substances. It is anticipated that the voluntary PIC arrangement will be replaced by the formal rules of the PIC Convention in the year 2002.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global, and the following Baltic countries have participated in the voluntary PIC co-operation: Sweden, Finland, the Russian Federation, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, and Denmark.

The following countries have signed the PIC Convention in Rotterdam in September 1998: Finland, Sweden, and Denmark.

Organisation and Decision Process

The decision-making authority with the PIC Convention is a Conference of the Parties, which meets annually to make decisions on inclusion of new substances into the PIC list and on other necessary adaptations.

In the intermediary period from the voluntary PIC co-operation till the conventionbased PIC system, i.e. the period 1999- 2001, an international committee of negotiations will make decisions concerning the operation of the PIC system.

The conduct of the current operational tasks will be the responsibility of the PIC secretariat in co-operation with a chemical expert' group with representatives from various UN regions.

For the EU countries, the voluntary PIC arrangement has become obligatory through the regulation of the EEC No. 2455/92 of 23 July 1992.The EU member countries are thus obliged to respect the import decisions of the non-EU member countries for PIC substances, as well as the EU countries are obliged to notify exportation of PIC substances at the Commission.

Every time the UNEP sends out new statements of the country decisions for new PIC substances, the EU countries have to take a vote as to whether these shall be included in the appendices of regulation No. 2455/92.

Fields of Activities

PIC is an abbreviation of Prior Informed Consent.The governments of the participating countries must give their consent to a country's wish to receive a number of hazardous chemical substances from foreign producers. If the exporter has his home country in another participating country, he is obliged to look into and respect the decisions of the import country concerning import of chemicals.

When the authorities estimate that a chemical substance, including pesticides, has so unfortunate qualities towards either human health or the environment that they prohibit or adjust the use of the substance by themselves, they inform the PIC secretariat.

When at least two countries, located in two regions of the World, have done so, the PIC secretariat prepares a document informing about the possible applications and risks in connection with the use of the substance and alternatives. This document is sent to a group of experts (the Chemical Review Committee), comprising a number of experts representing various regions of the World. This expert group reviews the presented material and may propose supplementary examinations of the qualities of the chemical substance. Thereupon, the final material is sent to the Conference of the Parties, which to the extent possible unanimously decides whether the substance shall be included in the PIC list.

If the substance is included in the PIC list, a decision document including information about possible use and risks is sent to all of the participating authorities, which individually decide whether they agree to import the substance. It is also possible to agree on a conditional import for reduced use of the chemical substance.

In connection with exportation of a PIC chemical substance, it must appear from the label which risk/danger it implies for human beings and environment, and security data sheets must be attached. Exporting countries are obliged to respect the import decisions of the other countries.

At the end of 1998, 27 chemical substances are included in the PIC list, but the number is expected to grow during the years to come.The up-to-date list can be seen at the home page of the PIC secretariat: http:// irptc.unep.ch/pic

One of the most important results is the acceptance from 151 countries of the voluntary PIC information system, and that the information system is functioning reasonably.

Present and Future Strategy

Based on the finalised negotiations on a Convention, no specific strategy has been made for increasing the number of participating countries or inclusion of a certain number of substances into the PIC list.

It is anticipated that in the future measures will be taken to inform about the importance of having national regulations of hazardous substances notified with the UNEP. This shall form the basis for assessment of the substances and subsequent inclusion of new substances into the PIC list.

It is further indicated in the Convention that the rich countries with wellfunctioning administrations of chemicals shall help with capacity building in the countries that do not have professional knowledge and no well-functioning administration of chemicals. These countries are especially the developing countries, but to some extent also the Eastern European countries.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

http://irptc.unep.ch/pic

3.2.21 Agreement on Mutual Nordic Assistance in Connection with Radiation Accidents (1963)

Purpose and Origin

The purpose of the agreement, which was made in 1963, is an overall formalisation of a wish between the contracting parties to help each other to the extent possible in case of a nuclear accident, which might cause damages from ionising radiation.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The agreement comprises the following parties: Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and IAEA (the former International Atomic Energy Organisation).

Fields of Activities

The agreement between the Nordic Countries determines the conditions on which a contracting party, requesting assistance by virtue of the agreement, may use the assistance provided by another contracting party of by IAEA.

The agreement thus includes specific stipulations concerning:

	General stipulations concerning the assistan ce, including responsibility for the use of ma terial, personnel, etc.
	IAEA's obligations in connection with an ap plication for assistance from a contracting party.
	Financial rules in connection with: Assistance · Liability for damages Nomination of competent authorities Rights and immunity Use of information Settling of disputes Termination of the assistance

Sources

The Danish Agency of Emergency Services

3.2.22 The Nuclear Safety Convention (1994)

Purpose and Origin

Negotiations on the nuclear safety convention were finalised in June 1994. The purpose of the Convention is to bind the parties with nuclear power plants to maintain a high level of safety.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The convention is global and has so far been signed by the following countries in the Baltic area: Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Germany.

Fields of Activities

After the Convention, international norms for safety in connection with operation of nuclear power plants will have to be set up. It should be noted that the Convention is an Incentive Convention, i.e. the Convention should encourage the parties to maintain a high level of safety. This is not obtained through control bodies and sanctions, but through dialogue, frequent meetings between the parties and preparation of reports, in which the parties must clarify what has been done in their respective countries to implement the obligations of the Convention.

The obligations are to a wide extent based on guidelines from the IAEA (the International Atomic Energy Agency) and appear from IAEA's Safety Fundamentals Document, The Safety of Nuclear Installations. These obligations for instance include guidelines in connection with:

	The location of a plant
	The design of a plant
	The construction of a plant
	The operation of a plant
	Distribution of sufficient financial and human resources
	Determination and verification of safety
	Quality assurance
	Emergency planning

The Convention primarily concerns obligations towards countries operating nuclear power plants, but it also includes obligations with a view to emergency for countries that are neighbours to nuclear power plants.

Sources

The Danish Agency of Emergency Services

3.2.23 The Convention on Early Notification of Nuclear Accidents (1986)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention was finalised in 1986 and was initiated as a consequence of the Tjernobyl accident. The Convention establishes an information system for countries in connection with nuclear accidents, which might cause a leakage and have radiation impacts on another country.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global and has so far been signed by the following countries in the Baltic area: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Germany, Finland, Sweden, and Denmark.

Fields of Activities

The Convention binds the contracting parties to report - either directly to the affected countries or through the IAEA and to the IAEA itself - regarding:

	The time of the accident
	The place of the accident
	Radiation leakages
	Other information of importance for the assessment of the situation

It appears from the Convention in which situations countries are bound to report on an incident/accident.

Besides, the four nuclear weapon countries (China, France, England and the USA) have bound themselves to inform about incidents in connection with atomic weapon and test of weapon.

Sources

he Danish Agency of Emergency Services

3.2.24 The Convention on Assistance in case of Nuclear Accidents or other Radiological Crises (1986)

Purpose and Origin

Negotiations concerning the Convention were finalised in 1986 as a consequence of the Tjernobyl Accident.The Convention establishes an international structure for co-operation between the countries and with the IAEA in order to facilitate the access to immediate assistance and support in case of nuclear accidents or radiationrelated emergency situations.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global and has so far been signed by the following countries in the Baltic area: Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Germany, and Denmark.

Fields of Activities

The Convention recommends the contracting parties to give information to the IAEA in order to be able to help with assistance in a given situation.The information may concern the following:

	Experts available
	Equipment
	Other matters of relevance in connection with the assistance

In case of requests for assistance, the individual contracting party decides whether they are able to provide the assistance requested. It must also be decided which framework (extent and conditions) can be set up for the assistance, including whether the assistance should be provided free of charge for the recipient country, etc.

Sources

The Danish Agency of Emergency Services

3.2.25 The Convention on Physical Protection of Radioactive Material (1979)

Purpose and Origin

The Convention on physical protection was finalised in 1979. The purpose of the Convention is to establish a framework for international co-operation in connection with protection of nuclear material as well as recovery and return of nuclear material, which has been stolen. The Convention also takes criminal acts into consideration that involves nuclear material.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The Convention is global and the following countries in the Baltic area have signed the Convention: Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Germany, Finland, Sweden, and Denmark.

Fields of Activities

The Convention binds the contracting parties - through the national legislation of the countries - to ensure protection of nuclear material in international transports, when:

	the nuclear material is found within the area of the contracting country,
	the nuclear material on board ships or aeroplanes under the jurisdiction of the contracting country.

Sources

The Danish Agency of Emergency Services

3.2.26 The Convention on Safety in Connection with used Atomic Fuel and Radioactive Waste (1997)

Purpose and Origin

The negotiations on the Waste Convention were finalised in 1997. Based on the potential risks for both the population and the environment caused by used fuel and radioactive waste, the purpose of the Incentive Convention has been to urge the contracting parties to maintain a high level of safety.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The following Baltic countries have signed the Convention: Lithuania, Poland, Finland, Germany, Sweden, and Denmark.

Fields of Activities

The Convention does not prescribe establishment of control bodies and sanctions, but it aims at increased safety through dialogue, frequent meetings between the parties, and preparation of reports, in which the countries must state what they have done in the countries to implement the obligations of the Convention. The structure of the Waste Convention is very similar to that of the Nuclear Safety Convention, which was also the practical point of departure for the present Waste Convention.

In general, the Waste Convention includes obligations in connection with:

	Handling if radioactive waste when the waste originates from the operation of civil nuclear plants,
	Handling of other types of radioactive waste, when the waste has been declared radioactive waste by the contracting country.

In general, the obligations concern observance of guidelines in connection with:

	Existing waste treatment plants
	Establishment of new waste treatment plants
	Design of plants
	Construction of plants
	peration of plants
	Distribution of sufficient financial and human resources
	Quality assurance
	Emergency planning

Sources

The Danish Agency of Emergency Services

Internet: www.iaea.org

3.2.27 The Energy Charter Treaty and the belonging Energy Efficiency Protocol (1994)

Purpose and Origin

The Energy Treaty and the Protocol on Energy Efficiency were signed in the Haag in 1994. The background for this was a wish to obtain financial recovery in Eastern Europe through an accelerated cooperation within the energy sector.

The purpose of the treaty is to create a legal binding framework for promoting a long-term co-operation within the field of energy, primarily through stipulations on investments, trade, transit, sovereignty over resources, and environment. The treaty and the protocol came into force on 16 April 1998.

Geographic Limits and Contracting Parties

The treaty includes all EU member countries, the Baltic countries, the Eastern European countries, the former Soviet Republics, and Japan.

Organisation and Decision Process

The upper authority is the Charter Conference, which meets twice every year.The conference determines fields of activities, sets up working groups, and determines the budget. At present, there are two working groups, which are given high priority: The working group on transit and the working group on energy efficiency.

The protocol on energy efficiency is a necessary supplement to the more marketoriented treaty, realising that certain political control mechanisms are required for ensuring an efficient use of energy and thereby protection of the environment. The protocol contains an ambitious presentation of principles in order to promote energy efficiency that the countries having ratified the protocol bind themselves to follow.

The present challenge is to transform the general principles into operational and specific initiatives.

A small secretariat has been set up in connection with the treaty.

Fields of Activities

The treaty lays down a number of principles, among others within the fields of investment, trade and environment, with a view to promoting the use of energy resources in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.

Present and Future Strategy

The original intention of the treaty was to create a set of guidelines within the field of energy, including investments, transit, trade, environment /energy efficiency, with a view to using the energy resources in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. With the coming into force of the treaty, a great part of the original intentions have been carried through. As far as energy efficiency is concerned, the coming into force of the protocol creates a framework for going on within this field.

The selection of Peter Helmer Steen as chairman of the working group on energy efficiency is a prolongation of the Danish efforts for a strengthening of the capacity building in the Charter Secretariat for implementation of the protocol on energy efficiency after last year's environmental conference in Aarhus.

Relations to the EU

The EU was originally the initiator of the cooperation.

Sources

The Danish Energy Agency

4. Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Area

The co-operation on problems related to trans-boundary pollution between the countries in the Baltic area started simultaneously with the introduction of environment on the global agenda in connection with the UN Conference in Stockholm concerning environmental protection.

1972 was also the year in which the European Communities (the EC) signed the first environmental action plan, which however only became valid for Denmark and Germany, which at the time were the only Baltic countries which were members of the EC.

In the same period the Nordic countries set up Ministries for the Environment, which received questions on environmental protection from the sector ministries. Environmental policies were made and special laws adopted concerning protection of nature and environment. Environmental protection came on the agenda for the Nordic Council of Ministers, where a committee of officials for environmental questions was set up.

A co-operation was established between all of the Baltic countries concerning the common sea environment in the Baltic. Thanks to the Helsinki Convention on the Baltic and the associated HELCOM Commission, a co-operation forum was set up which covered all countries around the Baltic across the former 'iron curtain' between Eastern and Western Europe.

Based on the Tjernobyl accident, a multilateral Conference of Ministers within the IAEA (the International Atomic Energy Association of the UN) was held in September 1986, in which all countries around the Baltic took part. The results of the Conference were the adoption of two Conventions, a Convention on assistance in case of atomic accidents and a Convention on early warning of atomic accidents.

The following year, in 1987, the UN World Commission for Environment and Development published its report (the Brundtland Report), formulating the basic principles for a sustainable development, also within the industrialised part of the World, including that protection of the environment should be an integrated part of the development of the sectors.

After the fall of the wall, the cooperation between the Baltic countries really began. In accordance with the overall principles of sustainable development, environment is included as a theme in many of the new Baltic organisations and international forums, in which the Baltic countries take part.

Co-operation is taking place on national, regional and local level and between the cities. There is co-operation within sectors, where both authorities and private organisations take part, for instance in the tourism sector.

The following includes an overall description of the European environmental cooperation, including all of the plans for its development, Chapter 4.1. Chapter 4.2 includes a description of the Nordic environmental co-operation. Chapters 4.3.1- 4.3.11 include an introduction to the most important forums in the Baltic area with environment on their agenda. The other international environmental co-operation, in which the Baltic countries take part, is described in Chapters 4.4.1-4.4.8.

Except for the EU, the descriptions of the organisations have to the extent possible been built up on available information on:

	background and purpose,
	geographic limits and participants,
	organisation and decision process,
	fields of activities and important results,
	financing and resources for environmental purposes,
	technological and professional cooperation,
	relations to the EU.

4.1 Enviromental Co-operation in the EU

Treaty Obligations related to the Environmental Co-operation

The Treaty of Maastricht opened the opportunity to have EU measures within the field of environment adopted by qualified majority as compared to the former unanimity.

The new environmental guidelines of the Treaty of Amsterdam have formed the basis for a co-operation within the EU, in which the environment has higher priority than earlier. The Treaty of Amsterdam is based on a sustainable development as one of the objectives of the Union and the Community. The obligation to include environmental regards has been included when determining the EU politics within the sector fields.

Environmental regard in the inner market has also been strengthened. It is not only the responsibility of the Commission to ensure a high level of protection in propositions for legal instruments, when environment and health are included. Now the European Council and the European Parliament must do their best to ensure the level of protection though their decisions.

Finally, the Treaty of Maastricht provides better opportunities for using the environmental guarantee. The environmental guarantee is valid both in cases in which there is a wish to maintain national rules and in which more strict national rules are desired in a field in which EU rules have been determined.

The EU and International Cooperation

The co-operation within the EU on environmental politics is increasingly directed towards the work in other international forums. The EU countries are carrying out an intensive co-ordination work with global environmental unities and in the different regional connections that all or most EU countries are part of. This is especially the case when discussing subjects for which EU guidelines or an EU policy have been determined.

The globalisation, including the liberalisation of trade and investments, implies a possible risk that environmental guidelines may in some countries be bent by moving investments and production to countries with easier or no rules for environmental conditions. This may cause increased pollution both locally and globally. A joint EU is in many cases a condition for obtaining results at all in major international connections, and the EU plays the role of a green dynamo in the work on the environmental conventions. The Danish Government will work on a strengthening and development of this role.

Revision of the EU's Agricultur al Reform and Structural Fund Reform

The revision of EU's agricultural policy is a challenge with great environmental perspectives. Environmental improvements are planned, among others through a requirement that the member countries shall determine suitable requirements concerning environment and nature, as a precondition for disbursement of direct support. It is possible hereby to obtain accordance between disbursement of direct support and observance of environmental and naturerelated requirements.

The agricultural reform also includes an opportunity to obtain support for sustainable types of operation and afforestation in rural areas.

An additional condition in connection with disbursement of means from the structural fund is that environmental impact assessments are made.

The EU's Negotiations on Exten sions

Besides following up on the Treaty of Amsterdam, the greatest challenge of the EU is the planned accession of new member countries. This extension of the EU both includes opportunities and potential risks for the environmental politics. There are enormous environmental perspectives in an extension of the community, in which everybody observes the existing environmental rules. It will be possible to reduce the air pollution caused by SO2 and NOx by 50% and the emissions of nitrogen and phosphorous into the Baltic can be reduced by 40%.

The Commission's proposal for an extension was presented in the spring of 1997 in the so-called Agenda 2000. Agenda 2000 is the Commission's analysis and estimate as to which modifications of the EU's reforms (structure, agriculture) shall take place before an extension.

At the summit in Luxembourg in December 1997, the European Council decided to initiate the accession and negotiation process with 11 Central and Eastern European countries, including the three Baltic countries and Poland. The European Council also decided to call inter-governmental conferences in the spring of 1998 in order to initiate negotiations with Cyprus, Hungary, Poland, Estonia, Czech Republic, and Slovenia (the 5 + 1 = 5 Eastern European countries and Cyprus).

The Council decided to divide the accession and negotiation process into 4 parts:

1. a common framework arrangement,
2. a reinforces accession strategy,
3. a monitoring procedure,
4. accession negotiations

A Common Framework Arrange ment

The framework arrangement means that the accession process is overall taking place within a common framework arrangement for the candidate countries. Within this framework, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs from the 15 EU countries and the 11 candidate countries can call meetings in accordance with their needs. This process was initiated on 30 March 1998 by a meeting with participation of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs from the 15 + 11 countries. The overall objective of the negotiations is membership of the European Union.The negotiations will be concentrated on meeting the requirements of the EU for membership. The overall requirements are the socalled Copenhagen criteria, which are the following:

	The political criteria focusing on the stability of the institutions as a guarantor for democracy and human rights, including the respect for and protection of minorities.
	The financial criteria, which first of all comprise the existence of a market economy that works, and secondly the capacity to bear the pressure of competition and the market forces in the Union.
	Fulfilment of the rules of the Community, the so-called Aquis Communautaire.

Pre-accession Strategy

The purpose of a pre-accession strategy is to bring all of the Central and Eastern European countries into a condition so that they can later become members of the European Union by adapting themselves to the EU legislation to the extent possible before the accession. The strategy is concentrated on accession partnerships and strengthening of the pre-accession assistance based on an analytical examination of the EU legislation in force individually for each accession country.

Accession Partnership

The accession partnership shows which overall requirements that should be met by each accession country in order to obtain membership. This indicates how to prioritise the tasks on short and medium term. Besides financial reform, strengthening of the institutional and administrative capacity, the inner market and legal and internal affairs, environment is one of the fields in which the Council has set explicit objectives. The environmental objective is identical in all partnerships.

The short-term objective is:

Continued taking over framework legislation, preparation of detailed programmes for mutual approximation and initiation of implementing these, as well as implementation of strategies in connection with the individual acts. Planning and implementation of these programmes and strategies.

The medium-term objective is:

Development of supervision and implementation control structures and capacity, continuous planning and implementation of programs for mutual approximation with contact to the individual acts. Special emphasis should be laid on wastewater, solid waste handling, air pollution, integrated industrial pollution control, and hazard control. The environmental protection requirements and the need for a sustainable development must be taken into consideration in connection with the preparation and the implementation of national and sector-specific politics.

It has been underlined in the partnerships that taking over the EU's legislation in force is not in itself sufficient; a reliable and efficient implementation and maintenance of the guidelines is required.

The accession partnerships can first of all be used as a control instrument, whereupon the rules and implementation of the accession countries are considered. Besides, the partnerships are considered to provide a sufficiently detailed overview of the priorities to be followed by distribution of financial means, especially from PHARE and ISPA (see below). The idea is that these means will be connected to the progress of the applicants and their observance of the determined programmes for taking-over EU legislation.

A Control Procedure

The Commission will regularly prepare a report to the Council on the progress that has been made in the individual countries. The reports must among others be followed by recommendations to initiate accession negotiations with other candidate countries, which was what happened in December 1999 when the Commission recommended to the Council (the Ministers of Foreign Affairs) to initiate government conferences with the remaining five accession countries, including Latvia and Lithuania.

Reinforcement of the Accession Support

Calculations made by the Commission show that alone the implementation of EU's environmental rules in all of the candidate countries will cost approx. 135 billion EURO.

The result of the Agenda 2000 negotiations means that in the period 2000-2006 a total of 78 billion EURO has been set aside as support to the accession countries. Hereof the pre-accession support represents more than 22 billion EURO.

The pre-accession support will represent 3.12 billion EURO in each of the years 2000-2006. The support will be provided through three instruments, which all have the objective of reinforcing the preparations of the accession countries, but not exclusively within environmental support.

More than half of the pre-accession support corresponding to 1.56 billion EURO annually will be provided through the PHARE programme. The programme among others has the objective of reinforcing the ability of the accession countries to maintain their legislation. Environmental projects can be provided to the extent, that they are given priority by the national PHARE programmes of the countries. Compared to the support, which is today provided through the PHARE programme, more than a doubling of the preaccession support has been assured.

Projects within environment and transport will be provided support through the ISPA arrangement, which is a structural fond instrument. 1.04 billion EURO has been set aside annually. The plan is to use 50% on environment and 50% on transport. Agricultural development and agricultural districts will be provided 520 million annually in support through a special agricultural instrument.

As regards the support to new member countries, a so-called development reserve has been created of totally 56 billion EURO in the period 2002-2006. The annual amount available for new member countries is increasing throughout the period (from 4.1 billion EURO in the year 2002 to 14.4 billion EURO in the year 2006). The possibility for new accession countries of profiting from the development reserve depends on the needs of the country in question and its ability to use the support efficiently (the absorption capacity). If for instance only one country becomes a member in 2002, it is not to be expected that this country will automatically have access to the 4.1 billion EURO representing the budget for 2002. This will depend on the absorption capacity of the country.

The Accession Negotiations

In the spring of 1999, the Commission finalised a screening and analytical assessment of the 5 + 1 accession countries' ability and willingness to fulfilling the aquis communautaire for each directive. The accession countries thereupon sent in negotiation position papers for the environmental aquis.

In the autumn of 1999, the EU countries have been negotiating the EU's common position as to opening the negotiations concerning the environmental aquis.

The common attitude of the EU is basically progressive and constructive. Further information, clarifications, and profound investigations are primarily required in order to make sure that the conditions for accession are as reliable and realistic as possible.

The task has first of all been to emphasise some conditions and criteria for interim arrangements and thereupon define in which fields the accession countries must 'improve their home work'. In this way, the mandate of the EU deliberately does not consider any interim arrangements in the meaning of number of years.

On this basis, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs could in December 1999 open the negotiations on the environmental chapter. The Ministers of Foreign Affairs simultaneously decided to initiate government conferences with the other five accession countries and Malta (Latvia and Lithuania as well as Bulgaria, Romania, and the Slovak Republic).

4.2 The Nordic Environmental Co-operation

Background and Objectives

The official Nordic co-operation takes place within the framework of the socalled Helsinki Agreement of 1962 with later modifications, especially the modifications made in 1972, where the Nordic Council of Ministers was set up and 1974, when the agreement was supplemented by three articles on environmental co-operation. It is indicated in the contractual basis that 'the contracting parties shall do their utmost to maintain and further develop the co-operation between the countries within the legal, cultural, social and economic fields, and concerning matters related to inter-communication and environmental protection. The contracting parties should consult each other in questions of common interest, which are taken into consideration in European and other international organisations and conferences'Further, the agreement specify, that

	In connection with preparation and implementation of national laws, the contracting parties must to the extent possible place the environmental protection interests of the other contracting parties on equal footing with their own.
	The contracting parties shall try to obtain harmonisation of their environmental protection rules with a view to obtain the greatest possible accordance as far as norms and guidelines for discharge and pollution are concerned, as well the use of environmental poisons and other environmental disturbances.
	The contracting parties shall also seek to obtain harmonisation concerning selection of natural protection and outdoor areas, as well as preservation and other measures for protection of flora and fauna.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The Helsinki agreement on Nordic cooperation was entered by Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Through modifications of the agreement in 1983, the self-governing areas - Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Åland - have obtained an independent status also within the Nordic co-operation, within the framework of the Danish and the Finish delegation, respectively.

Organisation and Decision Process

The Nordic co-operation apparatus comprises the Nordic Council, which was set up in 1952, and which is now a cooperation organ for parliamentarians, and the Nordic Council of Ministers, which is the co-operation organ of the governments. The Council of Ministers meets either as the Ministers for Nordic co-operation, or as a professional council of ministers within practically all ministerial fields. The ministers of co-operation are the Nordic budgetary ministers, and they take into consideration a number of transverse matters.

However, the ministers for cooperation are not a superior council of ministers with actual co-ordination powers within the individual ministerial fields. Here it is the individual professional councils of ministers that decide. Also the Nordic Prime ministers and ministers of foreign affairs meet, but formally not as councils of ministers.

The Council of Ministers takes its decision unanimously. In practice, decisions may be made within the field of environment, with one of the countries reserving its position. In such a case, the other countries make the decision for themselves.The decisions are binding for the participating countries, but they may include reservations concerning later approval or ratification. The Council of Ministers has committees of officials to prepare their meetings and decisions. The committees of officials typically set down a number of working groups and/ or project groups to prepare bases of decision within specific fields. The officials committee for environment thus has five permanent working groups and a number of cross-sectorial controls and working groups have been formed with mandates, which have been approved by the committees of officials.

The Council of Ministers may bring up any question for discussion and decision. The Council of Ministers will also be guided by the Nordic Council, which adopts recommendations to the Council of Ministers or the national governments. The Nordic Council also receives reports from the Council of Ministers, statements concerning the work of the Council of Ministers including earlier recommendations, and proposals from the Council of Ministers for common Nordic measures. There is thus an ongoing political dialogue between the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers within practically all fields of the society.

Nordic Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities

During late years, the Nordic cooperation has undergone essential adjustments based on the political changes in Europe and in the countries' membership of or connection to the EU.

Principles and overall objectives for the environmental co-operation in the Nordic Countries were adopted by the Nordic Council of Ministers, the ministers of the environment, in the report enEnvironmental Co-operation in the Baltic Regiond 'The future environmental co-operation within the Nordic Council of Ministers', September 1992.

In the report entiteled  'Nordic co-operation in new times', February 1995, which was prepared by the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, changes are foreseen in both the political and professional approach to the Nordic cooperation. The report underline the importance of using the principle of 'Nordic usefulness' in the future co-operation, and underlines the field of environment as one of the professional fields in which the efforts should be concentrated.

The report states that the environmental co-operation shall be concentrated on common Nordic environmental questions and questions that the Nordic countries wish to present in the European and other international organs. The stepwise integration of environmental regards in other sectors should be continued. The localities of the Nordic countries and the Arctic regions are also underlined, including specifically responsible use of natural resources and regard to the unique environment.

In 1995, the Nordic Council approved the Ministers of Co-operation's proposal for co-operation within the Arctic regions.

The Nordic environmental co-operation is based on the principle of 'the highest adapted level of ambition'. This means that by following the Nordic country having the highest level of ambition, the Nordic environmental co-operation is used as a lever both nationally and internationally. The intention is also to obtain international penetration for Nordic nature and environment politics, especially in relation to the EU.

The Nordic environmental co-operation is also based on the general principles for natural and environmental protection, which are acknowledged both on national and international level, such as sustainable development, environmentally adapted development of the society with a view to prevent environmental problems, sectorial responsibility, the principle of circulation, the principle of the polluter pays, as well as the principle of precaution.

The newest environmental strategy is the Nordic environmental strategy 2000- 2005. The strategy gives a total overview of the guidelines for the Nordic cooperation up to the year 2005.

The Nordic environmental strategy was revised based on the principle of sustainable development and sectorial integration of environmental regards. It will thereupon form the basis for the efforts in the Nordic co-operation within the field of nature and environment.

The Nordic co-operation is partly conducted in the form of projects, partly as co-ordination between the efforts of the Nordic authorities nationally and within the EU and other international organs of co-operation or conventions. The cooperation has during late years increasingly been characterised by the international cooperation. The co-operation in relation to the EU and the cross-boundary pollution problems within the fields of air, water, and biodiversity are therefore given high priority.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The Nordic co-operation budget is approx. 700 million DKK (2000). Hereof, approx. 40 million DKK is used for environmental purposes (2000).

Technologies and Scientific Co operation

The environmental co-operation in the permanent working groups under the Officials Committee for environmental questions (EK-M) and the co-operation in the cross-sectorial working groups are widely of a professional-technical character.

Through seminars and the projects that are initiated within these forums, actual problems are examined and elucidated.

The work within working and project groups build up a Nordic network, which is used in the professional development work and the political preparatory work in the Nordic administrations. The results and the clarifications and decisions that are made in this connection are used both nationally and internationally. Especially in relation to the EU, the Nordic efforts within the respective professional fields can be used for furthering the requirements of a reinforced environmental control.

Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes

The Nordic Council of Ministers sets aside funds for support to the localities. The funds are used for concrete projects concerning environmental improvements, including projects on nuclear safety, building up of knowledge through environmental research and environmental information and for building up of competence within public administration and the industry.

The Nordic Environmental Finance Committee (NEFCO) and the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) are parts of the Nordic environmental co-operation. The NIB lies within the responsibility of the Ministers of Co-operation, and a fund has been set up under the NIB concerning financial support for environmental purposes (MIL). NEFCO and NIB provide especially soft environmental loans to Eastern Europe, the Baltic Area and the Barents Region. The activities are assessed concerning environmental risks and are co-ordinated in relation to the bilateral efforts within the area, with a view to strengthening the development and the environment in the recipient countries.

Relevance for the Baltic Region

Within the Nordic co-operation, special focus has been on the localities of the Nordic countries, i.e. the Baltic Region, the Barents region, and the Arctic region during late years. This is one of the above mentioned Nordic 'columns' of cooperation.

An extended co-operation is considered an important contribution to stability and democracy in the region. In 1996, the Ministers of co-operation agreed upon a number of objectives concerning the local work of the Council of Ministers. The parliamentarians of the Nordic Council have formed a locality' committee, which has among others prepared a number of recommendations for the area to the governments.

The environmental co-operation includes measures in relation to the Baltic region over a broad front. The Nordic environmental strategy 1996-2000 includes as a guideline that 'support for solving the environmental problems in the localities of the Nordic countries is given high priority within the Nordic environmental cooperation. The efforts must take place both through political influence and decisions in the Nordic countries and internationally, and through concrete contributions to implementation of projects improving the environment, including projects on nuclear safety and with due regard to the bilateral East-West co-operation within this field. Building up knowledge in the localities of the Nordic countries through environmental research and environmental information should be supported, including the efforts for protection of the biological multiplicity. It is also important to assist the public administration and the industries with building up competence.

The working groups under EM-K and several of the cross-sectorial control groups, etc. have financed and implemented a number of environmental projects concerning the guidelines of the environmental strategy.

In conclusion can be said that the Nordic co-operation is highly of relevance for the Baltic region.

Sources

Danish Environmental protection Agency

The Danish Forest and Natural Protection Agency

'The Nordic Environmental Strategy 1996-2000', published by the Nordic Council of Ministers,TemaNord 1996:532.

'Nordic Co-operation in new times', a report published by the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, February 1995.

www.norden.org

Addresses

The Secretariat of the Nordic Council of Ministers,
Store Strandstræde 18,
1255 Copenhagen K,
tel.: +45 33 96 02 00
fax: +45 33 96 02 02

4.3 Political Co-operation and Initiatives in the Baltic Region

The work of the UN on sustainable development has left profound traces in the Baltic region, where the prime ministers in 1996 decided that the region should have an agenda 21 with visions and action plans for sustainable development in sectors that are important for the financial development but at the same time problematic for the environment. In accordance with these criteria, the industrial, energy, forestry, agricultural, fishing, transport, and tourism sectors were selected as responsible for the preparation and implementation of vision and action plan. Meetings are held regularly among the sector ministers of the Baltic countries, at which meetings environmental questions are also discussed. A further description of these meetings of the ministers is not part of this study.

Some of the other forums of cooperation described in the following have first and foremost been established with a view to establish a general co-operation with the new countries concerning the development of the region, including sustainable financial, social, and environmental development. Co-operation relations have been established on country and municipality level and between the county councils. Cooperation is established between all countries of the Baltic region and between a minor number of countries, for instance Sweden and Denmark in the Sound Committee.

The Baltic Environmental Forum and the Sound Committee are examples of cooperation between environmental authorities within a minor area of the Baltic region. These are only meant to be examples since this clarification, as mentioned in the introduction, has been limited to cooperation forums of relevance for the Danish environmental efforts in the region.

On sector level, the tourism industry has established a forum for development of the tourism of the region, with a mixture of private and public participation and with environmental issues as an integrated part of the work.

The work carried out within these forums is supported by VASAB, which is a cooperation on coherent physical planning in the region, which also integrates environmental issues.

The worst sources of pollution of the Baltic are named hot spots. The Prime ministers of the region have taken the initiative to establish a programme that is meant to help eliminating these hot spots. The programme named the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme (JCP) supports the implementation of HELCOM's recommendations. The HELCOM programme Implementation Task Force (PITF) implements the programme.

In order to reduce the pollution originating from the new countries and recognising that these do not have as wide a tradition for environmental regulation and administration as the 'old' countries have, centres for environmental administration and technology have been established in a number of towns in the new countries.

4.3.1 Baltic Agenda 21 (1998)

Background and Objectives

The purpose of the Baltic Agenda 21 (an Agenda for the Baltic Region) is to further a regional co-operation with a view to improve the living and working conditions of the population within the framework of sustainable development and environmental protection. The Baltic Agenda 21 complements the national and local agenda 21 and the work carried out under for instance HELCOM (the Helsinki Convention) and VASAB (Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010, i.e. physical planning in the region). The Baltic Agenda 21 also includes relevant EU aspects.

The initiative for preparing a Baltic Agenda 21 was taken by the prime ministers of the Baltic countries at the meeting in Visby in May 1996 and by the ministers of foreign affairs in June in Kalmar.

At a meeting held in Saltsjöbaden in October 1996, the ministers of the environment adopted a declaration, named the 'Saltsjöbaden Declaration', determining the guidelines for the continued work on the Baltic Agenda 21.

The ministers of foreign affairs approved the Baltic Agenda 21 at a meeting in CBSS (the Council of the Baltic Sea States) on 23 June 1998 in Nyborg, Denmark.

Geographic Limits and Partici pants

A very wide circle of people is participating in the work on the Baltic Agenda 21. Besides the countries having coastal lines towards the Baltic, Norway, Iceland and the EU participate. Hereto come VASAB, HELCOM, International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission (IBSFC), the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Baltic Tourism Commission (BTC), the Centre for Natural Resources and Environmental Research, Coalition Clean Baltic (CCB), Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), European Union for Coastal Conservation (EUCC), International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), International Network for Environmental Management (INEM), the Baltic Working Group for Baltic Fishermen, WWF International-Baltic Programme, union of Baltic Cities (UBC), World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and the international financing institutes, the Work Bank (IBRD), The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the European Investment Bank (EIB), the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB), and the Nordic Environmental Financing Corporation (NEFCO).

Organisational Structure and Decision Process

The control group of the process, the Senior Officials Group, both comprises government and EU representatives, representatives for international cooperation organisations such as HELCOM and VASAB, NGOs from relevant interest organisations and the international financing institutes. All representatives participate on equal terms. The Senior Officials Group, SOG, holds a couple of meetings annually. The countries have the chairmanship in turns. A bureau comprising 4 persons from SOG assists the chairmanship. Also a secretariat is connected to the process.

SOG has the overall responsibility for coordination of the further process, including reporting to the sector minister and the minister of environment every 2-3 years and to the Prime ministers every 5 years.

The Baltic Agenda 21 is meant to further sector-integrated environmental efforts in the Baltic region. Therefore 7 sectors of crucial economic and environmental importance participate: agriculture, industry, energy, forestry, fishing, traffic and tourism. The work is taking place according to the lead-party system, so that two countries/ organisations together have the chairmanship for each individual sector. The sectors themselves are responsible for the implementation of Baltic Agenda 21 within their sector.

Environmental Policies and Fields of Activities

Each sector has prepared a report including the objectives, scenario for a sustainable development and an action plan for the sector.The sector reports have formed the basis for the preparation of the final document on Baltic Agenda 21.

One of the important results of Baltic 21 is the action programme, comprising 30 different fields of activities, which are meant to further sustainable development in the Baltic area. It is based on selected proposals from the 7 sectors and on Visions and Strategies Around the Baltic Sea 2010 (VASAB 2010). The programme consists of three parts: common efforts, which concern more than one sector, selected sector efforts, which concern sectorspecific questions, and efforts concerning physical planning.

1. Common Efforts:

	Increased production and use of bioenergy and other renewable energy
	Use of regional forums and networks for sustainable development
	Establishment of demonstration areas and pilot projects for demonstration of sustainable development in practise
	Questions related to urban cooperation and sustainable development in towns and societies
	Provision of technologies for furthering sustainable development
	Information on sustainable development
	Ameliorate the consumers' knowledge on sustainable development

2. Sector Efforts:

The Agricultural Sector

	Training and education
	Development of a 'Virtual Research Institute' for sustainable agriculture based on the already existing NOVABOVA in the Baltic Area
	Preparation and execution of agroenvironmental legislation and policies

The Energy Sector

	Strengthening of the co-operation between authorities
	Increased use of renewable energy and furthering of energy efficiency and energy savings
	Co-operation on research and development

The Fishing Sector

	Development of long-term strategies for the most important fish stocks: Cod, Salmon, haring and sprat
	Reestablishment of resorts, which is important for fish and fishing in the inner waters
	Create a sustainable aquaculture

The Forest Sector

	Furthering of sustainable forestry and efficiency in private forestry within the Baltic region through: Existing organisational structures or networks of forest owners and forest tenants, exchange of information on ways and means for consulting services between organisations and authorities providing consulting services to forest owners and users.
	Analysis of preserved forest areas.
	Further the use of wood and woodbased products as a natural, longlasting resource and environmentally sound material, and modification of the consumption patterns in a more sustainable direction.

The Industrial Sector

	Improvement of the framework for industries through development of financial incentives ameliorating environment administration in industry; harmonisation of the industrial legislation within the fields of state support, competition, trade and environmental policies (including working environment and working safety) without reducing the present international environmental norms; implementation of international conventions and agreements of importance for a sustainable development within the Baltic area.
	Implementation of eco-efficiency in industry in the following respects: Development of eco-efficient means for the different trades; implementation of environmental management systems; inclusion of environmental factors in all kinds of activities and reporting, especially encouraging voluntary initiatives as far as industries' financial reporting is concerned; furthering of pilot projects aiming at a sustainable development.
	Extended and improved cooperation on research and development and transfer of know-how and technology within the Baltic area.

The Tourism Sector

	Maintain legislation concerning sustainable development and tourism, for instance coastal zone and HELCOM recommendations, physical planning and use of the areas.
	Environmental management systems and development of control methods within the field of tourism.

The Transport Sector

	Implement a project concerning development of guidelines, criteria and recommendations for infrastructure investments in a sustainable transport system.
	Provide and strengthen the cooperation between governments with regard to initiatives ensuring more rational transport of goods, especially by improving the railway and ships connections.
	Development of regional strategies supporting sustainable sea transport.

3. Efforts related to physical planning:

	Implementation of the Stockholm Declaration on a policy for sustainable development of physical planning.
	Continued development of the integrated management of coastal areas.
	Incorporate Baltic 21 in the European documents related to physical planning.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The Baltic Agenda 21 process does not have its own budget. Since the sectors have individual responsibility for the implementation, it is also up to the sectors to provide the required financing of the activities.

Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes

No support programmes have been established as part of Baltic Agenda 21. But the implementation in the former Eastern countries is supported by donors and financing institutes.

Under the Nordic Council of Ministers for Environment, 2 million DKK have been set aside for the process in 2000.

The financing institutes have taken active part in the process. The five International Financing Institutes (IFI) which have participated are The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the European Investment Bank (EIB), the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB), the Nordic Environment Finance Corporation (NEDCO), and the World Bank. Based on their respective mandates, the international financing institutes play an important part as a catalyst for the co-operation to support the objectives of the Baltic Agenda 21 through their relations to the governments, which have taken part in the cooperation. The various financing arrangements that are found within the EU, for instance the Life and Phare programmes (and the new arrangements that will be developed hereunder), Interreg IIA and IIC and Tacis also represent important financing opportunities for various parts of the action programme of Baltic 21.

Sources

'An Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region', Baltic 21 Series No. 1/98.

Baltic 21 website http://www.ee/baltic21

Address

The address of the secretariat is:
Baltic 21 Secretariat
Strömsborg
PO.Box 2010 S-103 33 Stockholm
Sweden
Tel.: +46 8 440 19 38/41
Fax: +46 8 411 72 84

4.3.2 Baltic Environmental Forum (1995)

Purpose and Origin

The purpose is to strengthen the environmental co-operation between the three Baltic countries, i.e. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania on the administrative level. This includes environmental issues of regional interest, capacity building and legal approximation to environmental standards within the EU. The activities started in June 1995 and are so far agreed to continue until August 2003.

Geographic Limits and Partici pants

Participants of the Baltic Environment Forum are Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

Organisation and Decision process

The ministries of the environment of the three countries are the primary participants. Emphasis is laid on strengthening middle managers and administrative staff in the ministries of the three countries, not only at ministerial level. A control group has been established, the participants of which is the ministers of environment in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, the EU Commission (DG XI), ministers of the environment from Germany, Sweden, and Finland, and the Latvian Environmental Protection Fund. The permanent staff comprises an environmental expert from the three participating countries and employees of a secretariat.

Fields of Activities

The fields of activities are harmonisation and strengthening of the environmental administration in the three countries, and approximation of the national legislation to EU standards with a view to accession to the EU. Besides, it functions as mutual environmental information centre towards the EU and other organisations.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The participants of the control group finance the activities, and the budget for phase 2 (two years) is 534,500 EURO.

Technological and Scientific Cooperation

Seminars, meetings, and workshops are arranged with the purpose of strengthening the communication, the exchange of information, and the co-operation within environmental protection between the three countries. This is assured through the participation of experts, NGOs, and the public.

Relations to the EU

DG XI participates in the control group and contributes to the financing.

Sources

Home page: www.bef.lv

Address

Baltic Environment Forum
Peldu 26/28 Room 505
Riga, Latvia
LV1050

E-mail: bef@latnet.lv

4.3.3 Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Co-operation (BSSSC) (1993)

Purpose and Origin

The Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Cooperation (BSSSC) was established in 1993 in Stavanger on Norwegian initiative.

The purpose of this is a continuous amelioration of the conditions of life and an economically sustainable development in the region. The means is new contacts and cooperation between authorities, institutions, and industry on a regional level and an extension of the existing regional bilateral and multi-lateral cooperation.

Geographic Limits and Partici pants

Members are regional authorities from Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, and Denmark.

Organisation and Decision process

The member countries have the presidency in turn, at intervals of two years. The presidency is supported by a secretariat, which geographically follows the presidency. A conference is held annually, at which the activities are reported and the following year's working programme adopted.

Fields of Activities

The fields of activities of BSSSC cover support to new local and regional administrative and democratic institutions, exchange of information and know-how in connection with financial and technical matters, humanitarian and health related matters, environmental protection and energy, culture, education, sports, tourism, transport, and communication.

Three permanent working groups have been established, which are working with institutional development and human relations, financial development and co-operation, as well as nature and environmental protection. The working groups function as 'think tanks', panels of experts, and as regional discussion partners in connection with national or international questions.

The BSSSC functions as a platform for starting up projects between the regions. Within the field of environment, the BSSSC has identified a number of problems in connection with environmental protection, and among others projects have been initiated related to development of local Agenda 21 in a number of municipalities in the Baltic Region.

Financing and Resources for En vironmental Purposes

The financing of projects initiated by the BSSSC is most often done through national funds, but EU programmes also support the projects. The most important EU financial support programmes are Phare, including Baltic Small project Facility (BSPF), and Tacis, Interreg and EcosOverture.

Technological and Scientific Co operation

The BSSSC has formed an ad-hoc working group related to the information society.The task of the working group is to establish a partner-search facility at the Internet.

Relations to the EU

The BSSSC has a close co-operation with the EU Commission (DG I and DG XVI), which is also represented at the annual meetings of the organisation.

Sources

Internet Homepage: www.bsssc.com

Address

BSSSC Secretariat
Ul.Okopowa 21/27
PL 80-810 Gdansk
Tel: +48 58 307 72 82
Fax: +48 58 307 74 38
E-mail: bsssc@bsssc.com

4.3.4 Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC) (1983)

Purpose and Origin

The Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC) has approx. 150 members and is open to everybody, private persons as well as public institutions that are willing to accept the conditions and agree to the objectives of the organisation. Among others through brochures and the Internet, the Commission is presented as a service for the tourism industry in the ten countries surrounding the Baltic Sea. Information about and reference to the tourism industry in the individual countries and the BTC function as an information centre for interested parties outside the region.The Chamber of Commerce in Lübeck founded the BTC in 1983.

Geographic Limits and Partici pants

The member countries are Germany, Poland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway including associated partners around the world who are interested in marketing the Baltic area as a travel destination.

Organisation and Decision Process

The BTC has no real organisational framework and is not a real international organisation. The Baltic Sea Council functions as an umbrella organisation for a number of minor regional actors, among others the BTC.

Fields of Activities

The objective of the BTC is to promote a natural and sustainable development of travel activities and tourism in the Baltic area. This can be done by creating interest for the potential of the region as a tourist attraction, by making data and information available, establish a network and business opportunities for actors at annual fairs and by establishing connection to public sources and organisations.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

BTC tries to create contact to EU financial support arrangements or other organisations for financing of analyses and investigations.

Technological and Scientific Cooperation

BTC was one of the main actors in the development of the partial report on tourism in Baltic Agenda 21. At the annual fair, experts within the tourism industry present contributions and analyses. BTC seeks to inform and influence tourism activities in the region.

Sources

The Danish Tourism Council

Home page: www.balticsea.com

Address

Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC)
Nya Rådstugugatan 3
S-6024 Norrköping
Sweden

Tel.: +46 11 123 580
Fax: +46 11 103 103
E-mail: info@btc.se

4.3.5 Environmental Centres for Administration and Technology (ECAT) (1993)

Background and Objectives

The overall purpose of the ECAT Centres is to reduce the pollution of the Baltic. ECAT is thus functioning as a support organisation for HELCOM.

The initiative to establish the Environmental Centre for Administration and Technology (ECAT) was taken by Hamburg and Bremen, Aalborg and Aarhus, as well as Sweden/Finland in order to provide financial support to cities and regions in the eastern and south-eastern Baltic regions within the field of environment. The first centre was established in 1993 in Riga.

Geographic Limits and Partici pants

ECAT comprises a great number of members from the eastern and western Baltic countries. Their educational background varies very much, since they both include economists, research workers within natural sciences, lawyers, and engineers just to mention some of the most represented categories.

Organisation and Decision Process

In the years 1993-1996, the following ECAT centres have been established: Latvia (ECAT/ECMC-Riga), Lithuania (ECAT-Lithuania), Russia (ECAT-St. Petersborg and (ECAT-Kaliningrad) and in Albania (ECATTirana).

Fields of Activities

The objective of making knowledge available within the fields of administration, politics, and industry is to hand over knowhow locally, make the environmental problems visible and help finding a solution. Each ECAT centre team comprises a West-European expert and local environmental specialists within different environmental disciplines. Emphasis is laid on solving the environmental problems both administratively and politically.

ECAT is thus working on efficiency within the fields of administration and legislation, and at the same time the centres help the industrial sectors reduce the effluent into the environment. Furthermore, one of the objectives is to increase the consciousness and the level of information of the population as far as environmental measures are concerned.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The individual members make financial contributions to the financing of ECAT. Besides, the organisation receives funds from the European Commission, EU, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), and from towns in Germany, Denmark, and France.

Relations to the EU

The EU has given financial support to the establishment of ECAT.

Sources

ECAT Newsletter and annual reports

4.3.6 The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme (JCP) and the HELCOM Programme Implementation Task Force (PITF) (1992)

Background and Objectives

After the breakdown of the communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe, it became clear that a strong pollution had taken place and that the impact on environment and nature in certain areas was very critical. On the other hand, there also exist a number of nature areas which are much less contaminated and in general much more untouched than in most places in Western Europe.

At an environmental conference in Ronneby in Sweden in 1990, the Prime Ministers of the Baltic Sea region and invited representatives from the international financing institutes (IFI) as well as observers from NGOs formulated a 'common vision' about a framework programme for environmental activities in the entire runoff area of the Baltic.The programme named 'The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme' (JCP) was finally adopted in 1992 and was slightly revised in 1998.

An important element of JCP is the elimination of point sources and the socalled hot spots, which upon an immediate assessment represent an important impact on the Baltic area.

JPC represents a formal and practical basis for the co-operation between the countries of the region as well as IFIs, research organisations, professional organisations, NGOs etc., who have a direct or indirect responsibility for the realisation of the objectives in the Helsinki Convention about the Baltic Sea, cf. Chapter 4.2.1.

The fact that JCP was created as a result of a Prime Ministers' meeting has ensured JCP and the associated environmental activities a safe political platform in the entire Baltic Sea. PITF plays a unique role in HELCOM and the Baltic Sea cooperation in general, since this is the only official forum including the European Union and all countries in the Baltic area and which at the same time includes official cooperation with IFIs and NGOs. The vision of JCP has today been supplemented by the 'Environment for Europe' process, which has special focus on policies, legislation, regulation and institutional development with a view to adaptation to the EU system.

Geographic Limits and Participants

JCP comprises the entire run-off area of the Baltic Sea, cf. the survey on map 2.2.1.1.

The parties of HELCOM:

Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, The European Union, and Denmark.

Other co-operating governments:

Ukraine, Belarus, Slovakia, Czeck Republic, and Norway.

Other Participants

Regional Inter-governmental Organisations:

International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission (ISFC) [ICES]

International Financing Institutes (IFIs):

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
European Investment Bank (EIB)
Nordic Investment Bank (NIB)
Nordic Environment Finance Cooperation (NEFCO)
World Bank Group

Organisations (NGOs etc.):

Coalition Clean Baltic (CCB)
Conference of Rectors of European Universities (CRE)
European Union for Coastal Conservation (EUCC)
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI)
International Network for Environment Management (INEM)
Union of Baltic Cities (UBC)
World Wildlife Foundation (WWF)

Organisation and Decision Process

An essential part of the countries involved in JCP are at the same time 'contracting parties' in the Helsinki Convention (HELCOM). Therefore, in 1992 the parties requested HELCOM as an organisation to be in charge of the secretarial coordination and facilitation of the JCP process. This has in practise been done through the foundation of a special independent task force - the HELCOM Program Implementation Task Force (HELCOM PITF) - with representatives from all parties involved in JCP and its own chairman selected by the parties. PITF has its own secretary connected to the organisation, who is a member of HELCOM's staff in Helsinki.

Decisions in PITF are made by consensus of all parties, both national and others. The final implementation of the efforts is done upon decision on a national level and is a national responsibility.

Fields of Activities

JPC has made a list of 132 primary point sources of pollution - hot spots.These are primarily point sources, which represent good opportunities for quick and efficient measures against the pollution compared to the investment. The list includes industries, major urban wastewater treatment plants, waste deposits, solid waste handling, and agriculture. Some of the pollution sources no longer have the character of primary point sources, either because the production has ended or been much reduced, or due to measures taken against the impact of contaminating substances from the plant.

Of the 132 primary point sources, 50 originated from industries. Also some industrial effluent from the 65 major treatment plants had been included, since they typically have a great number of industries connected. There were 16 primary point sources, but also non-point sources on the list within the agricultural sector.

The measures taken against the pollution from treatment plants have been more intense than the efforts to reduce the impact from industries. Of the 65 major urban wastewater treatment plants, which were originally included in HELCOM's list of point sources, extensions and improvements are ongoing on 30 of these, and three have been excluded from the list as a result of the measures. In connection with agriculture, HELCOM recommends that there is special focus on storage and spreading of manure in order to reduce volatilisation and leaching of nitrogen.

JPC consists of six complementary elements:

1. policies, legislation and regulation,
2. institutional development and posteducational training,
3. investment in actual activities, treatment of pollution from point sources and from non-point sources,
4. management plans for wetlands,
5. necessary use-oriented research,
6. environmental consciousness and environmental information.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The financing of PITF's secretariat is part of the total financing of HELCOM.
The financing of the necessary environmental activities in the countries under JCP will essentially be a national concern. The countries, which have given priority to and incorporated environmental investments in their national budgeting, are therefore also the countries that can demonstrate the highest activity within the fields of activities of JCP.

However, the national efforts are, especially for the countries in transition, facilitated by various types of international financing and support. Hereto come various types of direct support. The EU has used several of its support programmes (Phare, Tacis, Interreg and Life) to further the harmonisation to the EU and at the same time they have promoted the JCP's fields of activities.

Technological and Scientific Cooperation

PITF has independently and in cooperation with HELCOM a number of ongoing activities. The most important ones of these are the annual status reports, concerning discharges from and investments in hot spots, published as 'Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings'. Besides, within all of the fields of activities, there are working groups managed by 'lead parties', which currently follow the development within the field and which upon acceptance from PITF can start up various investigation work and the like.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

HELCOM, 1998. Recommendations for Updating and Strengthening

Balt. Sea Environ. proc. No. 72

2.3.2/1: Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 71

2.3.2/2: Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 69

2.3.2/3: Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 64A

2.3.2/4: EU's extension towards the East, Main Report, Danish Environmental protection Agency, 1997

2.3.2/5 EEA-ETC/IW - Europe's Environment. The Second Assessment

2.3.2/6 JPC: Joint Comprehensive Environment Action programme

Home page: http://www.helcom.fi

Address

HELSINKI COMMISSION
Katajanokanlaituri 6 B,
FIN-00160 Helsinki,
Finland

Tel.: +358 9 6220 220
Fax: +358 9 6220 2239
E-mail: helcom@mail.helcom.fi

4.3.7 Union of Baltic Cities (UBC) (1991)

Purpose and Origin

The Union of Baltic Cities was established in 1991 in Gdansk, Poland, at the request of 32 cities in the Baltic region.The purpose is to promote the co-operation between the Baltic member cities.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The organisation is open to all coastal cities at the Baltic and to everybody who is interested in the development of the Baltic area. In order to be a member, applicants are requested to send in a written application to UBC. In 1998, 84 Baltic cities were members.

Organisation and Decision Process

The Union of Baltic Cities comprises a Presidium, a Board, and a Secretariat. The Secretariat is located in Gdansk, Poland. The General Meeting is the decisionmaking organ and is the highest authority. The organisation is based on voluntary labour and the management is elected democratically.

The Board includes a member city from each of the 10 member countries around the Baltic Sea.The Board meets at least once every second year.

Today, the Union of Baltic Cities comprises 10 different subcommissions:

	The Commission for Business Cooperation
	The Commission for Communication
	The Commission for Culture
	The Commission for Education
	The Commission for Health and Social Conditions
	The Commission for Sports
	The Commission for Tourism
	The Commission for Transport
	The Commission for Urban Planning
	The Commission for Environment

The secretariat of the commission comprises an environmental co-ordinator and a project employee.

Fields of Activities and Essential Results

The majority of the work carried out by the Union is carried out within the ten above-mentioned Commissions. The activities within the individual fields of work cover actual projects, exchange of experience and educational seminars, music festivals, and sports arrangements.

The Commission for Environment (KfM) is working on many fronts in order to improve the environment.

	In the development of Agenda 21 for the Baltic countries, the Commission for Environment (KfM) played an active role. It is their objective to implement Agenda 21 on a local level and see to it that the ideas are transformed into sustainable action.
	The KfM is one of the main organisers in the Baltic Local Agenda 21 - health and sustainable cities, conference' which was held in September 1998 in Finland. This conference was the start of Baltic Local Agenda 21 (BLAF21), comprising municipalities and NGO supported by KfM.
	Four times a year, the KfM publish a bulletin concerning the environment in the Baltic countries. The bulletin will be printed in 2,500 copies.
	The KfM has prepared a pilot project named 'Baltic Municipal Environmental Auditing (MEA)', the purpose of which is to create a model for carrying out municipal environmental audits. The model was first tested in Tallinn and is now available for all of the member cities in the form of manuals, formula and other tools. The KfM coordinates the coming revisions and helps the member cities provide funds for this purpose.
	In 1996 to 1998, KfM was in charge of a training programme named 'Programme on Institutional Strengthening and Human Resource Development', thanks to which approx. 400 environmental specialists were trained in physical planning and the environment, recycling as an element in handling of solid waste, and treatment of contaminated soil.
	'The Archipelago sea and sustainable harbour policies' is the Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region of a project which started in 1997. The purpose of the project is to harmonise the harbour politics of the participating cities. External consultants from the Centre for Maritime Studies (University of Turku and Åbo Academy University) carried out a survey of handling and treatment of solid waste and wastewater, and of emissions into the air from passenger/car ferries. Based on this survey, an action plan was commenced in order to reduce regular environmental impacts into the Archipelago Sea coming from passenger/car ferries.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The financial funds for financing of UBC partly come from the membership of the individual cities (2,000 USD), from general development support (e.g. USAID), and partly from private donations and grants.

The various projects/programmes are sponsored by different organisations, but often the EU and the World Bank participate.

Relations to the EU

EU provides support for several UBC projects and programmes.

Sources

Publications: Newsletters (approx. three annual newsletters)

Each of the 10 commissions publishes a number of catalogues, magazines, etc.

Information about the Union of Baltic Cities and the member cities can be found on the UBC home page: http://www.ubc.net

4.3.8 VASAB (Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010) (1992)

Purpose and Origin

At a meeting in Karlskrona on 21 August 1992, the Ministers responsible for physical planning from all of the countries around the Baltic Sea decided to prepare a physical and functional development perspective for the Baltic Area, with the Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region 'Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010' (VASAB). The purpose of the co-operation was:

	To create a common picture of the future based on the real conditions and pre-conditions in the region.
	To be able to present a common Baltic vision for the other parts of Europe.
	To provide the opportunities to include national development perspectives into an international perspective.
	To support the development of a network to strengthen the cooperation, including transfer of qualifications and development of information in the region

The VASAB report, describing the future urban system of the Baltic region, its transport network, nature and cultural landscapes, islands, coastal areas, and border regions, was approved at a Conference of Ministers in Tallinn, Estonia in 1994.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The co-operation was started up by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad, Karelia, St. Petersburg), Sweden, Germany (Bonn, MecklenburgVorpommern and SchleswigHolstein).

Organisation and Decision process

By the approval of the VASAB report, the co-operation was made permanent. The Committee for Spatial Development in the Baltic Sea Region (the VASAB Committee) got and still has the responsibility for following up on the political decisions and action plans. The VASAB Committee is supported by a secretariat.

In order to strengthen the cooperation and the co-ordination of the many activities in the Baltic region, the presidency of the VASAB Committee follows the presidency of the Baltic Sea Council. The presidency lasts one year.

Fields of Activities

The VASAB report and the following activities concentrate on the following planning fields of activities:

	Urban system and urban cooperation
	Infrastructure, including sustainable sea transport
	atural and cultural areas, including big islands and coastal areas
	Planning methods and building up of qualifications

The VASAB Committee puts much emphasis on co-ordination and cooperation with all relevant actors in the Baltic area. The most important co-operation partners are the Baltic Sea Council, HELCOM, the Union of Baltic Cities, and the Baltic Agenda 21.

Essential Results

	'From Vision to Action', a revised action plan, approved by the ministers in Stockholm in October 1996.
	'Common Recommendations for Spatial Planning of the Coastal Line in the Baltic Sea Region', approved by the ministers in Stockholm in October 1996.
	Seminars and courses concerning among others planning methods and processes, transfer of method and experience from national development perspectives, integrated coastal zone management, the role of planning in the Baltic Agenda 21 process.
	Participation in the preparation of the Interreg IIC Programme for the Baltic Sea Region.
	Participation in the Baltic Agenda 21 process by the report 'Spatial Planning for Sustainable Development in the Baltic Sea Region' and obtained membership of the Baltic 21 SOG group.
	Three approved Interreg IIC projects, concerning respectively:

1. The functions of the major cities and their development potentials in a Baltic and international perspective.
2. The development opportunities within maritime transport.
3. VASAB 2010 PLUS - an upgrading and revision of the VASAB report from 1994.

Financing and Resources for Planning Purposes

VASAB has an annual budget, which mainly covers the operation of the secretariat and some seminars and minor projects. In order to be able to meet the requirements of the action plan, VASAB is therefore dependent on further donor funding.The EU programmes of Interreg, Phare and Tacis are the most important assistance programmes that VASAB can use.

Relations to the EU

VASAB is in current contact with the European Commission, especially DGXVI. The planning co-operation among the countries around the Baltic has in many ways inspired and been a model for the initiatives of the EU to the Interreg IIC programme, which covers seven major areas within the territory of the EU.

Sources

Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010 - Towards a Framework for Spatial Development in the Baltic Sea Region (VASAB), 1994.

The Baltic Agenda 21: The report 'Spatial Planning for Sustainable Development in the Baltic Sea Region', Baltic 21 Series No. 9/98 can be found at the Baltic 21 home page (http://www.ee/baltic.21). For further information, cf. the Chapter on Baltic 21. Information on the VASAB cooperation can be found at home page (http:// www.vasab.org.pl).

Information on the Interreg IIC Cooperation can be found at home page (http:// www.spacial.baltic.net)

Addresses

VASAB
VASAB 2010 Secretariat
Dlugi Targ 8-10
PL-80-828 Gdansk
Poland

Tel.: +48 58 301 82 55 /58 305 90 93
Fax: +48 58 305 40 05
E-mail: infov@vasab.org.pl

4.3.9 The Sound Committee (1993)

Purpose and Origin

The Sound Committee was established in 1993 as a framework for a political cooperation with a view to a positive financial, social, and cultural development in the Sound region and a durable environmental development.

Geographic Limit and Participants

The Committee comprises Swedish and Danish authorities from the Sound area. I.e. the counties of Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Storstrøm, Vestsjælland, Bornholm and Roskilde, the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg, the Regions of Skåne, Malmø, Lund, Landskrona, and the Municipality of Helsingborg and the Cities of Malmø and Helsingborg. The Swedish and Danish Governments act as observers represented by the Swedish Food Department and the Danish Ministry of Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Environment and Energy.

Fields of Activities

The Committee in general functions as a network constructor, a political platform, and an ambassador for an intensified cooperation across the Sound between persons, industries, and organisations. The Committee initiates and runs its own projects within trade and industry, the labour market, research, training, culture, environment, the Baltic Council, information, communication, and infrastructure.

The Sound Committee holds an annual conference: Øresundstinget (The Sound Session), which in 1998 focused on environment.

The committee works on an environmental programme for the Sound Region, which has been initiated by the Danish and Swedish Governments. The purpose of the environmental programme is to carry out a survey and set up environmental targets for the Sound Region with a view to making the Sound Region one of the cleanest city areas of Europe. The programme finalised its survey phase in 1998. The results have been published in a survey report and a summary report with the Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region 'The Conditions of the Environment - how to go on' (Miljøets tilstand - hvordan kommer vi videre).

The environmental programme must be further developed up to the end of year 2000.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

In 1998, the Sound Committee had a budget of approx. 7.5 million SEK. The Committee received financial support from the Nordic Council of Ministers and the EU.

Sources

The Annual Report from the Sound Committee, 1998.

Addresses

The Secretariat of the Sound Committee
Gl. Kongevej 1
1610 Copenhagen V
Denmark

4.3.10 The Sound Water Co-operation (1995)

Purpose and Objective

The Sound Water Co-operation is an agreement of co-operation, which was made in 1995 with the purpose of obtaining a good water environment in the Sound.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The agreement of co-operation was entered between Swedish and Danish counties, municipalities and provinces around the Sound.

Organisation and Decision Process

Representatives of the three counties in the Greater Copenhagen Area, the Municipality of Copenhagen, the Province of Skåne, the Cities of Helsingborg and Malmø, and the Municipality of Landskrona have formed a working group in which professional discussions are taking place. Decisions are made by an overall steering committee upon recommendation from the working group. The steering committee includes officials from the environmental administrations of the parties.

Fields of Activities

The Sound Water Co-operation has published a Sound Bibliography for the period 1990-1996, a report on the impact of harbour activities on the water environment, a pamphlet on the Sound environmental condition - 1997, and they have applied for funding from the EU for an environmental database for the Sound. Furthermore, co-operation is taking place with the Sound Committee to develop objectives for the water areas in the Sound Area.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The Environmental Department of the Municipality of Copenhagen provides financial support to the Secretariat.

Sources

Pamphlets on the Sound Water cooperation.

Address

The Sound Water Cooperation
The Secretariat
C/o Municipality of Copenhagen
Flæsketorvet 68
1711 Copenhagen K
Denmark

4.3.11 The Council of the Baltic Sea States (1992)

Purpose and Origin

The Council of the Baltic Sea States, CBSS, was founded in 1992 with a view to co-ordinate and strengthen the existing cooperation in the Baltic Area.

The main purpose of the co-operation is to further the democratic development of the Baltic Area and create a greater unit between the member countries and ensure a favourable economic development with a view to making the Baltic Area a new growth zone in Europe.

Geographic Limits and Partici pants

The members of the Council of the Baltic States are Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Germany, and the European Commission. The following countries have the status of observer in the Council: France, Italy, the UK, Ukraine, and USA.

Organisational Structure and Decision Process

The work carried out in the council is also based on the UN pact, the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris, and other OSCE documents. The presidency lies with the countries in turns of one year.

The Council, comprising the ministers of foreign affairs of the member countries and a member of the European Commission, meet once every year.The role of the Council is to be a consultative and overall co-ordination forum for the member countries.

The minister of foreign affairs of the country that has the presidency is responsible for co-ordinating the activities of the Council in the periods of time between the annual meetings of the ministers, and for this work the Council is assisted by the Committee of Senior Offices, CSO, comprising representatives from the ministries of foreign affairs of the member countries and from the European Commission. The presidency of the Committee of Senior Officials follows the presidency of the Council.

Three working groups have been set up under the Committee of Senior Officials:

	The Working Group for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (WGDI)
	The Working Group for Economic Cooperation (WGEC)
	The Working Group for Nuclear Safety (WGNS)

In 1998, a permanent international secretariat was set up for the Council of the Baltic Sea States in Stockholm.

The Prime Ministers of the member countries of the Council of the Baltic Sea States meet at regular intervals. The first summit took place in Visby in Sweden in May 1996, the next one in Riga Latvia in January 1998, and the third one in Kolding, Denmark in April 2000.

A group of experts has been formed directly under the Prime Ministers of the member countries, with the purpose of discussing organised crime.

Fields of Activities and Essen tial Results

The fields of activities are reflected in the above mentioned working groups. Besides, EuroFaculty was formed in 1993, the purpose of which is to improve higher education within the fields of law, economics, public administration, and business administration at three universities in the Baltic countries. The idea is to include Kaliningrad as well.

In 1994, a Commissioner for democratic institutions and human rights was nominated, including the rights of minorities. The task of the commissioner is to assist with furthering and strengthening the democratic development and ensure observance of human rights. The commissioner is independent and reports directly to the Council.

In 1997, at the initiative of the economic working group, a consultative body was founded, the Baltic Sea Business Advisory Council (BAC), including experts from trade and industry. The purpose of the council was to further the privatisation and restructuring process in the countries with transitional economy and to further small and medium sized enterprises.

In 1996, The CBSS adopted the following action programmes in order to concretise the activities of the Council:

	Participation in the political life and stable political development development, including participation in local initiatives, NGOs, civil emergency measures, combating of organised crime, free mobility and combating abuse hereof, education and exchange as well as cultural cooperation.
	Financial integration and devel- development, opment, including financial integration and transition into market economy. The Baltic Region and the EU, transport, physical planning, and energy.
	Joint and Several Problem-shoot- shooting ing - the Environment of the Baltic, including water planning, waste and chemicals, oil pollution, atmospheric fallout, agriculture, protection of marine ecosystems, sustainable fishing and natural protection.

The CSO has been requested to follow up on and co-ordinate the implementation of the programmes. Since their adoption, the action programmes have made out the consultative basis for the work programmes of the working groups. As for the follow-up on the environmental action programme, the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) takes care of this.

Baltic 21 is taking care of other parts of the field of environment. At their meeting in June 1998, the Council of the Baltic Sea Countries adopted the Baltic Agenda 21.

The Council of the Baltic Sea States cooperates with a number of subregional actors such as: Baltic Sea States Subregional Co-operation (BSSSC), Baltic Sea Parliamentary Conference, Union of Baltic Cities (UBC), Baltic Chambers of Commerce Association (BCCA), and Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC).The three first of these have the status of 'special participants' in the work of the Council of the Baltic Sea States.

Sources

The Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Information about the CBSS can be found on the following home pages:

http://www.baltinfo.org
http://www.cbsscommissioner.org

Address

The CBSS Secretariat
Strömsborg
P.O. Box 2010
103 Stockholm

Tel.: +46 8 440 1920
Fax: +46 8 440 1944

E-mail: cbss@cbss.st

4.4 The Other Parts of International Environmental Cooperation

Chapter 3.2 includes a description of the contents and the ongoing work with the conventions of the European Council and the UN, but besides this some environment political work takes place, which is directed towards the future, and which may lead to new conventions. This work takes place in many forums and it may be difficult to get an overview of it all and understand the correlation.

There also is the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which is a global cooperation on protecting nature and the multiplicity of the ecosystems. It is useful to know the IUCN, among others because the organisation has wide knowledge of the natural resources of the world, also of the Baltic Area.

Before talking about legal obligations, a small number of countries may make political agreements as to what the individual country will do and what the counties will work on in a broader perspective. The North Sea Conference is an example of this type of political co-operation based on the pollution of the North Sea. Many international organisations have integrated environmental protection in their work, in one way or the other. This is the case for the security political organisations, the conference on security and cooperation in Europe and NATO, and it applies to organisations for economic development and trade such as the OECD and the World Trade Organisation,WTO.

There is a great difference in these organisations' work on environmental issues and the work's importance for environmental politics. This goes from financial support for environmental research and fellowship programmes (NATO) to the dangerous subject of environment and free trade (WTO), the latter of which may have great influence on the future regulation of environmental issues.

In the following, the other forums for international environmental co-operation are described, which are of importance for the environmental co-operation in the Baltic Area, and in which the countries in the Baltic area take active part.

4.4.1 The North Sea Conference (1984)

Purpose and Origin

The first North Sea Conference was held in Bremen, with participants from Belgium, Denmark, France, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Germany, Great Britain, and the European Commission. The objective of the conference was to give a political push forward to the work within relevant international organisations (among others the Oslo Convention on dumping, the Paris Convention on land-based pollution, and the MARPOL Convention on pollution from ships), and to ensure a more efficient implementation of the existing international decisions related to the sea environment in the North Sea.

Fields of Activities

At each conference and ministers meeting, the ministers have taken on a number of political obligations, with the purpose of protecting or improving the environment of the North Sea. The decisions made at the conferences have been expressed in ministerial declarations or conclusions, and they have been of great importance, influencing the environmental legislation on a national level, and promoting the work within international forums.

The Esbjerg declaration of 1995 deals with a long series of subjects such as species and habitats, pollution by hazardous substances and nutrients, radioactive substances and pollution from ships and offshore installations. As a consequence of the concern about the fishing industry's impact on both commercially important fish species and other fish species, and on the eco-system as a whole, fishing activities were introduced as a new subject.

The next North Sea Conference will be held in Norway in 2002.

Follow-up and Preparation

By making the Esbjerg declaration, the ministers of the environment of the North Sea states decided that meetings should be held regularly and on officials level in order to implement the co-operation that is necessary to follow up on the decisions made at the fourth North Sea conference. These meetings are named Committees of North Sea Senior Officials (CONSSO).

Representatives from the North Sea countries and the European Commission take part in CONSSO, and as at the conferences, also representatives from a number of IGOs participate (among others OSPAR, ICES and IMO). Meetings in CONSSO are normally held once a year, but they are held more often at times where ministerial meetings and conferences are being prepared.

The text of the Esbjerg declaration and further information about the North Sea Conferences and the follow-up work can be found at the home page of the Norwegian North Sea Secretariat (http:// www.odin.dep.no/nsc/).

The Preparation and the Results of the Conferences

Before the conferences , reviews were made, as a basis for deciding which subjects should be included in the ministerial declarations. Before the fourth North Sea Conference in 1995, the North Sea countries in common made a progress report about the progress that had until then been obtained within the protection of the environment of the North Sea. Also a Quality Status Report was made concerning the environmental conditions and the environmental impacts in the North Sea. In the same way, before the mid-term ministerial meeting in 1997 in Bergen, an Assessment Report was made about fishing and similar subjects related to species and habitats.

It appeared from the review made before the Hague conference in 1990 that much progress had been obtained since 1984, but that the progress had been varying and that the Bremen declaration had not been fully implemented. It was found that there was still a need for further measures to reduce the outlets of hazardous substances into the North Sea both from land and through the atmosphere; there was still a need for recommending the use of non-polluting technologies, for protecting the specially vulnerable areas of the North Sea, for reducing the discharges from ships and off-shore installations, for maintaining rules that have already been adopted, and for building up a better scientific basis for assessments of the condition of the North Sea.

The review from 1995 - the Progress Report - concluded that after the third conference in Hague in 1990, further and important progress had been obtained by the transformation of the political initiatives of the North Sea Conference into binding rules within international and EU legislation. These new and comprehensive requirements have in many ways fundamentally changed the understanding of the future environmental protection work in relation to the North Sea. However, the Hague declaration had not been fully implemented within all fields, and in several ways there was still a need for further measures to be made.

Relevance for other Waters, in cluding the Baltic

In general, the North Sea Conference has meant that all of the North Sea countries and the European Commission have accepted the obligation to use the principle of precaution and the principle of the polluter pays in their work for protecting the marine environment.The signing of the new OSPAR convention in 1992 and its coming into force in 1998 by the adoption of objectives and working strategies for a long series of subjects, represent an important progress initiated by the decisions of the North Sea Conference, and in reality the principles are visible through the adoption of the EU and OSPAR regulations, which concern the areas included in the North Sea Declarations.

Special emphasis shall be given to the objective of the Esbjerg Declaration to prohibit pollution of the North Sea by a continued reduction of discharges, outlets into the air and diffuse contributions of hazardous substances. In this way, it will be possible to reach the target of stopping these types of pollution within a period of 25 years, with the final objective to obtain concentrations in the environment that are close to the background values for natural substances and concentrations close to zero for synthetic substances produced by human beings.

This objective was adopted in 1998 in both OSPAR and HELCOM (which means the Baltic) together with strategies of how to meet the objective; it has also had influence in the EU Directive about the framework for the future water policy of the European Community.

As an other example can be mentioned the decision of the Esbjerg Declaration not to dump worn out offshore platforms. In 1998, OSPAR decided that by and large all worn out platforms in the entire North Sea area should be brought onto land.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

The home page of the North Sea Secretariat:

http://www.odin.dep.no/md/nsc/

4.4.2 The Conference on Safety and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

Purpose and Origin

As a finalisation of the conference on safety and co-operation in Europe (OSCE) from 1973 to 1975, the participating states agreed upon the so-called Helsinki Final Act, in which a number of mutual political commitments are given to observe certain principles for the mutual relations of the states and promote the safety and co-operation in Europe. The final act was at the time characterised as an agenda for the East-West relationship for the next century and was therefore regarded as a long-term project. Economy and environment have all the time been part of the agenda as a reflection of the entire accession of the co-operation to the safety question.

Geographic Limits and Participants

33 states from Eastern and Western Europe, USA and Canada participated in the first conference. Today, 55 states participate, including all of the Baltic countries.

Organisation and Decision Process

OSCE is not a traditional international organisation. The organisation is not based on treaties; its work is based on the political decisions made by consensus at summits between state and government heads every second year. The work of the OSCE is co-ordinated by the presidency, which also represent the OSCE on a number of occasions.

Fields of Activities

Many of the questions, which are considered in the final act, are traditional subjects for international co-operation. It refers to a wide extent to other international documents, including the UN pact and the UN human rights conventions.

The final act is divided into three main sections, the popular names of which are 'baskets'.

Basket No. 1 concerns questions related to safety in Europe.

Basket No. 2 concerns cooperation within the financial, scientific and technological fields, and energy and environment.

Basket No. 3 concerns co-operation with the human field and stipulations on promotion of free mobility of information and ideas across the borders.

The most important decisions concern determination of the very fundamental standards and norms for the behaviour of the states towards each other and towards their citizens. The norms for the relationships between states among others concern agreements within the military field concerning arms control and civil control of military services.The norms related to internal behaviour in the states concern a common acceptance that an essential condition for the countries to be able to live together in peace and safety is that all societies are based on democracy, constitutional principles, respect for the human rights, and market economy.

It is a main task for the OSCE to control that the countries live up to these standards - and to work for progress if this is not the case.

The OSCE can not as such be in charge of the implementation of all of its decisions. This task is most often the responsibility of other and more specialised international organisations and the countries themselves. The OSCE in this way functions as normative, giving political impulses for others to follow up on.

The OSCE follow-up process, which is as mentioned a continuous process, must as far as environmental questions are concerned, first and foremost be regarded as an opportunity to give incentives to prioritise and intensify the work within the existing conventions, etc.

After a restructuring, the OSCE's efforts within the field of environment are concentrated on making seminars on especially energy and environment. The OSCE cooperates with other international organisations, among others UNEP and UNECE.

Technical and Financial Support Programmes

In some fields, the OSCE contributes directly. This especially applies to the new independent countries, among others in the Baltic Region. The OSCE helps the countries live up to the standards - and thereby become part of the value community that the OSCE represents. Assistance has among others been given to the preparation of national action plans within the field of environment.

Sources

Booklet prepared by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on the Organisation for Safety and Co-operation in Europe (The OSCE).

Home page: http://www.osce.org/

4.4.3 Environmental Co-operation in the Council of Europe (1949)

Purpose and Origin

The European Council was founded in 1949 and is thus the eldest European cooperation organisation. The main purpose of the Council is preservation of the pluralistic democracy, protection of human rights, and maintenance of the constitutional principle.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The European Council has 41 member states, including all of the Western European countries and a number of central and eastern European countries. Among the latter are all of the countries around the Baltic.

Organisation and Decision Process

The European Council has a very branched secretariat at its disposal. Besides, the Council has a huge network of contacts to voluntary organisations, which have continuous influence on the work of the Council. The European Council has a parliamentary assembly, the members of which have been selected by the parliaments of the member states.

Fields of Activities

The essential tasks of the organisation are within culture, education, and legislation in the narrowest sense, the latter not least because of the tasks related to the European Human Rights Convention. The European Natural Protection Convention (the Bern Convention), which came into force in 1982, the Convention on Protection of the Architectonical Heritage in Europe (the Granada Convention) from 1985, and the revised convention on Protection of the Archaeological Heritage in Europe (Valetta, 1982) were created within the European Council. The European Council has also been in charge of the preparation and the negotiations concerning the pan European biodiversity strategy, which was adopted at the pan-European conference of Ministers of the Environment in Sofia in 1995. The strategy can be seen as a pan European follow-up on the global convention on biological diversity from 1992, cf. Chapter 3,2.13.

Also the Strasbourg Convention on protection of the Rivers of Europe has been created within the European Council, which has also carried out a number of ministerial conferences on planning, natural protection and preservation. The ministerial conferences on regional/special planning (CEMAT) have been held approximately every third year since the first conference was held in Bonn in 1970. At CEMAT in 1983 in Spain, the Ministers adopted the European charter on regional planning (the Torremolino Charter), and a few years later 'the European Regional Planning Strategy'. A number of campaigns have been adopted within the European Council, among others concerning the architectonic heritage of Europe, urban renewal, and the open landscape. In 1993, a convention was adopted concerning damages caused by activities hazardous to the environment. In 1998, a convention on strengthening of environmental protection by penalty clauses was adopted. The European Council has during the last ten years given priority to the work concerning protection of the nature in Eastern and Central Europe.

Relations to the EU

The co-operation between the European Council and the EU is rather close, and the latter participates in connection with preparation of conventions and at parties' meetings in existing conventions at the same level as the member countries, when EU competence is involved. This is especially the case in the Bern Convention, because the two EU directives on protection of wild birds and on protection of habitats for wild flora and fauna (the Habitat Directive) to a great extent implement the Bern Convention within the EU.

There is also a good co-operation with the EU within the CEMAT (the Conferences of the European Council on Regional Planning) in connection with the preparation of the physical, functional development perspective of the European Council concerning physical planning.

Sources

The Danish Agency of Forestry and Natural Protection

The planning department of the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy

Home page: http://www.coe.fr/eng/acte/ eenviro.htm

4.4.4 Environmental Co-operation in NATO (1969)

Purpose and Origin

The environmental co-operation within NATO takes place within the CCMS - the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. The co-operation started back in 1969, with the view to give the alliance 'a social dimension'. The main task is to arrange for the exchange of technical and scientific information and knowledge about the practical use hereof at the profit of all of the member countries. In the early 1990'ies, the work was extended to also include the NACC - the North Atlantic Cooperation Council - which has later been replaced by the EAPC, the EuroAtlantic Partnership Council, which comprises the former Eastern European Countries, as well as Finland, Austria, Sweden, and Switzerland - in total 28 countries.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The participants are Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Great Britain, the USA, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary.

Organisation and Decision Process

The CCMS meets twice a year in plenum, as well as once every year with the EAPC countries. The CCMS does not carry out research work itself, since the work is carried out decentralised, through pilot projects. Besides, so-called ERFA groups have been set up, which function as efficient and very targeted forums for exchange of knowhow.

Participation in the projects is voluntary. As part of the projects, workshops and conferences are held. At the end of the projects, these are in the forms of overviews submitted to the members of the committee and to the North Atlantic Council. The more technical reports are available for all interested parties.

The results of the project work can in general be used by the member countries on a voluntary basis. These either has the form of technical solutions models or various forms of recommendations.

Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities

The CCMS has carried out projects within a broad range of subjects. 'Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment and Clean up of Contaminated Land and Groundwater' is one of the subjects. Another subject that is being dealt with is clean up of former military installations.

Financing and Resources for Scientific Cooperation

Projects etc. are basically financed by the participants or by a minor part of the countries. However, funds exist for a limited fellowship programme and for a study programme, which provides financial support to the participating projects.

Technical and Financial Support Programmes

No real technical or financial support programmes have been established under the Committee. By the foundation of the CCMS Environmental ClearingHouse System - CCMS ECHS in 1995, the opportunity for exchanging results from pilot projects and other sources was considerably strengthened.

Relevance for the Baltic Region

The co-operation is of limited relevance to the Baltic Region, as no special programmes are directed towards the Baltic.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Home page: http://www.nato.int/

4.4.5 Environmental Co-operation with the UN

Protection of nature and environment is part of the UN's work within several cooperation forums and organisations; both within the global UNGASS, IMO, IAEA, WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UNDP, and within the regional ECE. Besides, the UN has a special organisation for nature and environmental matters, UNEP (United Nations Environment programme). A few conventions have been negotiated and finalised under the UN.

In the following, only organisations, which have at present prepared environmental protection conventions, are specifically described.

4.4.5.1 The UN's Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)

Purpose and Origin

The environmental co-operation within UN/ECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) has been created through 40 years of discussions, negotiations, and co-operation. The purpose of the environmental co-operation is first and foremost to reduce the cross-border pollution in a European context through international acts, resolutions, decisions, and declarations and the construction of a branched network between the member countries, international organisations, financial institutions, and environmental organisations.

Geographic Limits and Participants

All European countries, including all countries around the Baltic, as well as USA and Canada, participate in ECE's environmental cooperation.

Organisation and Decision Process

The overall guidelines for the work of the ECE, including the development of the work programme and prioritisation of the Environment Programme for Europe (the ECE), are decided by the Committee on Environmental Policy (CEP), whereas the follow-up work in connection with the conventions is controlled by independent committees with reference to CEP.

Fields of Activities

The most visible result of the environmental co-operation within the UN/ECE has been the adoption of a number of environmental conventions and protocols, the international environmental effect of which can to a great extent be found in the fact that these conventions comprise both Western and Eastern Europe. Within some fields - for instance the convention for long-range, cross-border air pollution and 4.4.5 Environmental Co-opera tion with the UN Protection of nature and environment is part of the UN's work within several cooperation forums and organisations; both within the global UNGASS, IMO, IAEA, WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UNDP, and within the regional ECE. Besides, the UN has a special organisation for nature and environmental matters, UNEP (United Nations Environment programme). A few conventions have been negotiated and finalised under the UN. In the following, only organisations, which have at present prepared environmental protection conventions, are specifically described. the convention on public access to environmental information, access to participation in decisions within the field of environment, and access to legal testing within environmental matters - it can be observed that these regulations form the basis for later international measures, including EU directives.

Within the last 20 years, 11 binding legal acts, 5 conventions, and 6 protocols have been adopted. The conventions include the following:

	The Convention on long-range crossborder air pollution (1979).
	The Convention on environmental impact assessment in a cross-border contact (1991).
	The Convention on cross-border impacts of industrial accidents (1992).
	The Convention on protection and application of cross-border watercourses and international lakes (1992).
	The Convention on public access to environmental information, participation in decisions within the field of environment, and legal testing in environmental matters.

Hereto comes the adoption of 6 protocols, all in connection with the air convention, comprising:

	The Protocol on long-term financing of the co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluation of the longrange transmission of air pollutants in Europe (EMEP), 1984.
	The Protocol on the reduction of sulphur emissions or their transboundary fluxes by at least 30 per cent, 1985.
	The Protocol on control on emissions of nitrogen oxides or their transboundary fluxes, 1988.
	The protocol on control of emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or their trans-boundary fluxes, 1991.
	The protocol on heavy metals, 1988.
	The Protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 1998.

The Conventions and the protocols are mentioned in Chapter 4.

Concurrently with the adoption of internationally binding legal acts, the environmental co-operation was speeded up in connection with the change of system in Eastern Europe, at which time the socalled 'Environment for Europe' process began. The first pan-European ministerial Conference was held in Dobris in 1991 in the former Czechoslovakia. The purpose was to form a new European environmental forum. In Dobris, it was agreed to develop three important components:

	An Environment programme for Europe (ECE), under the guidance of ENECE.
	An Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe (EAP) in a Task Force under OECD.
	An Environmental Status Report for Europe, with the European Environmental Agency as the executing part (the Dobris Report).

Since then, three pan-European Conferences of the Ministers of Environment have been held.The second one was held in Lucerne, Switzerland in 1993, with one of the most important results being the adoption of an action programme for Central and Eastern Europe. At the third Conference of ministers in Sofia, Bulgaria in 1995, among others ECE's environmental programme (EPE) and the panEuropean Biodiversity and Landscape Strategy were adopted. The environmental programme includes a number of different tasks, including the preparation and follow-up on legally binding environmental acts and less binding instruments within the fields of biodiversity, sustainable development, and environmental integration (especially within transport, energy, and agriculture).

At the fourth pan-European Conference of the Ministers for the Environment in June 1998 in Aarhus, Denmark the environmental programme (EPE) of the UN/ECE was developed within the following fields:

	Adoption and signing of the Convention in public access to environmental information, public participation in decisions within the field of environment, and access to legal testing within environmental matters.
	Adoption and signing of two air protocols concerning POP (persistent organic pollutants) and heavy metals.
	Adoption of a policy statement and guidelines on making energy more efficient.
	Adoption of a strategy on phasing out of the lead content of petrol.
	Adoption of a resolution on the further work on the pan-European Biodiversity and Landscape Strategy.

At the fourth pan-European Conference of the Ministers for the Environment in Aarhus, it was also decided to refocus the efforts towards the Newly Independent States (the NIS countries). The Environmental problems are tremendous and still increasing in the NIS countries, and so far sufficient political attention has not been present, neither on national nor on international level. Furthermore, in relation to the EPE programme, it was decided to increase the efforts towards practical implementation of the same obligations. It was also decided to increase the intervals between the conferences of ministers from 3 to 4 years.

In November 1997, a regional conference on transport and environment was held. At the conference, a declaration of transport and environment was adopted, as well as an action plan (Vienna, November 1997). In the declaration, the participant countries among others declare their willingness to work for a sustainable transport sector, work for better energy efficiency, and for less polluting vehicles and petrol, more efficient and sustainable transport systems, also in the cities, more safe transport of hazardous goods, and for protection of vulnerable areas, including the water environment.

The Vienna declaration has been followed up upon at a conference on environment and health, where one of the main themes was transport and health. The conference was held by the World Health Organisation under the UN in London in 1999. The conference resulted in a charter, which recommends the WHO and other international organisations to continue their work towards a sustainable transport sector. According to the charter, the preparation of a report is also required, clarifying existing international agreements and legal rules within the field of transport. The report is meant to identify the opportunities for new and non-binding activities and the need for a binding agreement within this field.

Relevance for the Baltic Region

The environmental co-operation within the UN/ECE must, in relation to the Baltic Region, which partly comprises countries which are members of the European Union, East European Countries with opportunities of obtaining accession to the EU, and a NIS country, be seen as a cooperation that supplements the Baltic cooperation, especially with the adoption of binding legal acts, whereby uniform rules are created within the areas in question. The relevance of the UN/ECE work in relation to the Baltic co-operation must also be to ensure sufficient co-ordination so that initiatives and decisions do not overlap, but supplement each other.

In the declaration and the charter on sustainable transport, it is recommended that special financial support be provided to the new countries.

Sources

Home page: http://www.unece.org/ env_h.htm

4.4.5.2 UNGASS - Sustainable Development (1977)

Based on UNGASS, the United Nations General Assembly Special Session conference in June 1997, the international society made a status of the environmental efforts after the Rio Conference. It was found that for some of the big overall matters, no progress could be seen. This is first and foremost the case for the rich countries' financial support to the developing countries. The objective of the Rio Conference concerning 0.7% financial support from industrialised countries to developing countries has only been met by few countries; there are even a number of countries that go in the opposite direction.

UNGASS made a work programme for five years for the Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD).The implementation of the work programme takes place within many organs of the UN, and the International Committee on Sustainable Development (IACSD) assures the coordination work.

Up to the next conference 10 years after Rio, the CSD is meant to consider the following subjects: the waters, sustainable tourism, sustainable production, and consumption.

Sources

IACSD home page; www.un.org

4.4.5.3 The Environmental Co-operation within IMO (1958)

Purpose and Origin

The International Marine Organisation was founded in 1958 as a body within the UN. The purpose of IMO is to work for common rules within shipping and navigation in order to improve safety at sea and reduce sea pollution from ships and installations. This has resulted in 40 conventions and protocols. The most important conventions within the field o environment is the Marpol Convention concerning pollution from ships, the London Convention on dumping, and the Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response.

Organisation and Decision Process

IMO's organisation comprises an assembly, a council, a secretariat, and five committees. 156 countries are members of the organisation, including all of the Baltic countries. Besides, the EU is associated to the organisation as an observer and a long series of interest groups have consultation rights.

The assembly is the supreme body of IMO. It comprises all of the member countries and meets every second year. The assembly makes all recommendations, work programmes, and the budget.

The Council comprises 32 member countries selected by the Assembly for a twoyear period. The Council monitors the implementation of the work of the organisation and is in charge of the functions of the Assembly in the period of time between the meetings.

The Secretariat is in charge of the daily work in the organisation.

The IMO has five Committees:The Committee for Safety at sea, the Committee for protection of the marine environment, the Committee for Legal Matters, the Committee for Technical Co-operation, and the Facilitation Committee.The Committees are open for all of the member countries. Decisions made are based on consensus. Proposals of preparation of new conventions or modifications are normally discussed in one of the committees and must be approved either by the Assembly or the Council.

In order to facilitate the adoption of modifications, the convention concerning setting up of IMO has been changed so that the principle of tacit consent applies. This means that if no objections have been received from a number of countries the modifications to the treaties come into force after at least one year.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The IMO is a global organisation; 177 countries are associated to the organisation, including all countries around the Baltic.

Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes

The budget for 1997-98 is 63 million $. The size of the financial support from the member countries is based on the total number of tonnes of merchant ships registered in the country.

Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities

The IMO has adopted a number of conventions concerning pollution from ships. There are rules concerning discharge of oil, other hazardous substances, wastewater and waste at sea. Rules on prevention in the form of reporting requirements, requirements concerning emergency plans in case of oil pollution, arrangements at ships and reception facilities for waste, etc. in ports, and on air pollution from ships and platforms. Besides, there is a convention on prohibition of dumping and cooperation on emergency plans and assistance in case of oil leakage, the London Convention and the OPRC Convention, respectively. The new fields of regulation are regulation of hazardous substances in anti-fouling composition plant, undesired organisms in ballast water, and extension of the OPRC Convention to include other substances than oil.

Technical and Financial Support Programmes

The IMO has developed a programme on technical co-operation in order to provide support to countries in lack of technical know-how and resources. An important part of the programme is the International Navigation University in Malmö, Sweden, which was set up in 1983 funded by the IMO, and which offers technical training. The university is now only supported by other donors.

Relevance for the Baltic Area

The Marpol Convention on prevention of ships-generated pollution has described the Baltic as a special area of protection, which entails restrictions of the discharge rules for oil that otherwise prevail for navigation. The Baltic has a high traffic load, which means that the co-operation with the IMO is highly relevant.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

4.4.5.4 The International Atomic Energy Agency (1957)

Purpose and Origin

The International Atomic Energy Agency has two main purposes. One is to promote and extend the contributions of atomic energy to peace, health and wealth of this world; another is to make sure that the financial assistance and other activities provided by the agency are not used to support military purposes.

The regulations for the IAEA were approved in 1956 at an international conference held at the headquarters of the UN, and the Agency was founded in 1957 in Vienna, Austria. The agency was approved the same year as an autonomous organisation under the UN.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The IAEA is a global organisation. All countries around the Baltic participate in the work.

Organisation and Decision Process

The politics and programmes of the IAEA are governed by 'The General Conference', comprising all of the member states of the IAEA, which meet annually, and by a management committee of 35 members.

Fields of Activities and essential Results

Besides being in charge of the development of international conventions, the agency promotes and governs the development of peaceful exploitation of atomic energy, sets up standards for atomic safety and environmental protection, helps member states through technical co-operation and furthers the exchange of scientific and technical information.

One of the main functions of the agency is to ensure that radioactive materials and equipment meant for peaceful use are not redirected to being used for military purposes. Every year, approx. 200 inspections are carried out at more than 900 installations all over the world. The safety recommendations set up the agency are used by the countries as a basis for rules and standards within this field.

Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes

The Agency assists the member states building up radiation protection and infrastructure for handling of waste. The IAEA has established a model for interregional projects, which is meant to upgrade the infrastructure for radiation protection in the member countries. The inputs of the agency are among others courses and workshops on specific aspects of radiation protection, experts' visits, and supply of basic equipment.

Sources

The Danish Agency of Emergency Measures

4.4.5.5 UNESCO - The UN's Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (1945)

Purpose and Origin

UNESCO, The United Nations' Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, was founded in November 1945 with the purpose of contributing to peace and safety in the world by promoting cooperation between the nationals within the following fields: education, science, culture, and communication. UNESCO's headquarters are located in Paris.

Geographic Limits and Participants

UNESCO is a global organisation. All the Baltic countries are member states.

Organisation and Decision Process

UNESCO is managed by a General Conference, with representatives from all member states. Meetings are held every second year, at which decisions are taken concerning programme and budget for the next two-year period, strategies and choice of members of the steering committee.

The steering committee, comprising representatives of 58 member countries, meets twice every year. This is an administrative council, which is responsible for following up on decisions made at conferences and for the preparation of the conferences.

A secretariat is in charge of the daily work, including the execution of the twoyear programmes decided by the member states.

As something unique for an organisation under the UN, UNESCO has set up national commissions in 180 member countries composed of members from intellectual and scientific circles, who take part in the development, execution and evaluation of the programmes. Regular meetings between the Secretary-Generals of the commissions on regional and international level keep UNESCO informed on both local and global needs.

Fields of Activities and essen tial Results

The most important fields of activities and essential results of UNESCO have been the Convention on Protection of the Cultural and Natural heritage of the World. The organisation is very active within training in environmental protection and is working closely together with among others UNEP and IUCN on the implementation of Agenda 21.

In connection with Agenda 21, UNESCO has given priority to the work on scientific problems, education, knowledge of environmental questions and training, capacity development in developing countries concerning cleaner technology, oceans, coastal zones and small islands, freshwater resources, biodiversity, desert prevention, and renewable energy.

The Inter-Governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) is an organisation under UNESCO.

Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes

UNESCO especially has support programmes within the field of education, but also projects on environmental problems in coastal cities, safeguarding of freshwater supply, and biological diversity.

Sources

UNESCO's home page

Home page: www.unesco.org

4.4.5.6 UNEP (The United Nations' Environmental programme) and Habitat (The United Nations' Centre for Human Settlements)

Purpose and Origin

The UNEP is the UN's body for protection of environment and nature. The organisation is based in Nairobi, Kenya, but it has special regional offices in all parts of the world. Also the UN's Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS/Habitat), which takes care of habitation and planning matters, is based in Nairobi, Kenya. The UNEP is meant, as an operative environmental body, to carry out principles and policies, which have been adopted in for instance UNGASS, in the form of conventions, action plans, and programmes.

The UNEP has during late years been through a very serious crisis, both administrative and political. The financial support to the UNEP's core budget, the Environmental Fund, has gradually decreased during the 90'ies. The engagement and political support to the UNEP from the individual countries have been decreasing. Among the western countries, especially the EU countries, the confidence in the UNEP and the belief that the UNEP can function as an efficient global environmental organisation, have increased. Klaus Töpfer has, on recommendation, chaired an international Task Force, which has made a number of recommendations on how to improve and strengthen the work of the UNEP. The recommendations also concern UNCHS/Habitat. This organisation has been through serious crises and financial difficulties. The administration of the organisation has been insufficient, even if the work of the organisation on human settlements has been well approved.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The UNEP is a global organisation, which also comprises all of the countries around the Baltic. However, the direct cooperation with these countries goes through the UNEP's regional office for Europe, which together with the European Council is in charge of the secretarial functions for the Pan-European Biodiversity and Landscape Strategy.

Organisation and Decision Process

The UNEP has a Board of Management, which functions as a kind of Board of Directors for the UNEP. The Board of Management includes representatives from 58 countries, who are selected so that the countries are members in turns.

Fields of Activities

The General Assembly of the UN has decided that the UNEP should preferably have a strengthened role in connection with international conventions, including their implementation.

A number of convention have been adopted within the UNEP, including the convention on biological diversity, the PIC Convention on export of hazardous substances, the Vienna convention on protection of the ozone layer, and the Basel convention on transport of hazardous waste.

A new UNEP convention were initiated, the objective of which to phase out or regulate 12 named POPs (persistent organic compounds). The 12 compounds are adrine, chordan, DDT, dieldrine, endrine, heptachlor, HCB, mirex, toxaphen, PCB, and dioxins/furans.

The Convention is meant to cover regulation of POPs from all sources and replace and 'globalise' the protocol on POPs in the ECE air convention.

The UNEP has overall administrative tasks for the independent secretariats for a number of conventions, including the Washington Convention on international trade with threatened species of animals and plants (CITES), the Vienna Convention on protection of the ozone layer, the Basel Convention on transport of hazardous waste, the Biodiversity Convention, and the Bonn Convention on protection of migrating species of wild animals.

It is part of the secretarial function that the UNEP meets with the parties and with parties of other relevant conventions. Hereto comes that the UNEP works with the fields that are relevant in relation to the Conventions; these are among others biodiversity, the atmosphere, industry and environment, environmental technology, chemical substances, health, environmental economy, and trade and environment.

The UNEP also works with environmental legislation, environmental assessment, environmental information and education.

Technical and Financial Support Programmes

The UNEP is in charge of technical support programmes for the developing countries, including training within the fields of environment.Together with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank, the UNEP takes part in implementing Global Environment Facility (GEF) Programmes.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

4.4.6 The Environmental Co-operation within the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1961)

Purpose and Origin

The OECD was founded in 1961 with the following main purposes:

	further economic growth and employment in the member countries,
	further economic and social welfare through co-ordination of the political fields of the member countries,
	stimulate and harmonise the cooperation with the developing countries in a direction, which is favourable for these.

The OECD analyses the economic development in the member countries. Representatives from the member countries meet regularly, with a view to compare and coordinate national and international political efforts.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The OECD today has the following 29 members: All of the EU countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, USA, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, Turkey, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic.

Organisational Structure and Decision process

A Secretary-General and a number of Deputies manage the OECD. The secretariat is divided into a number of professional directories. One of these is the Environmental Policy Committee (EPOC). The committee functions as an umbrella body for a number of committees with working groups, which are working on environmental matters within the fields of climate, chemicals, taxes and duties, investments, waste, etc. Besides, the committee functions as an umbrella organisation for working committees set down in cooperation with other OECD directorates, for in- s stance the Joint Working Party for environment, trade and environment, and agriculture, respectively.The committee is also an umbrella organisation for very specialised working groups, for instance the Task Force for Implementation of environmental programmes in Central and Eastern Europe.

The committee meets twice every year.The committee considers the results of the various committees and groups, prioritises the tasks, determines the working programme and budget for the years to come, and close down or set up work committees or groups. Besides this, the committee prepares meetings for the OECD ministers for the environment, which take place approx. once every third year. The ministers for the environment make recommendations within the field of environment, which are presented to the Council of the OECD due final prioritisation and decision. The Council meets once per year and includes the ministers or economics/foreign affairs of the OECD countries. The daily work within the OECD is co-ordinated at weekly meetings, which are covered by the local OECD ambassadors of the OECD countries.

Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities

The structure of the OECD is during these years being reorganised, with the purpose of modifying the organisation so that it is to a greater extent able to assist the surroundings in its efforts to obtain sustainable development.

The recommendations build on the idea that sustainable development is obtained by taking a horizontal view, which harmonises and integrates the policy within the fields of economics, environment, and social affairs, and that the OECD countries can help the member countries in this connection.

As an important step in the implementation of the strategy, the OECD plans to extend and intensify the horizontal work towards a more sustainable development; this can be done by giving special focus to the following four fields of work: Climate changes, environmental impact of financial subsidies, technological development, and behaviour indicators.

Financing and Resources for Scientific Work

The EAP Task Force of the OECD is only working as a secretariat. A number of their collection and information activities may be seen as scientific. However, the Task Force does not have funds for financing of scientific work.

Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes

The EAP Task Force of the OECD is active within technical support itself. The task force holds and participates in workshops and gives bilateral support to CEE and NIS countries within the fields of environment, financing, and financial control instruments.

Relevance for the Baltic Region

The Eastern European countries around the Baltic take part in the work comprised under the field of the Task Force. For the Eastern European countries, this is very big need for having concrete information and ideas within the field of environmental economics.The work of the Task Force is very relevant for these countries.

4.4.7 The Environmental Co-operation within the IUCN

Purpose and Origin

The IUCN - the World Conservation Union (formerly International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN) is a global union, the purpose of which is to affect and promote societies all over the world to conserve nature and the diversity of the eco-systems, and to make sure that all use of natural resources takes place at a uniform and ecologically sustainable basis.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The organisation has approx. 900 members in 133 countries, comprising governments (74), public authorities (100), and private organisations (approx. 710). Besides, 8,500 individuals participate as experts in the committees and networks, etc. of the organisation, with relation to conservation of biodiversity. The contributions from members are determined according to a weighed scale, but besides a number of countries provide financial support to programmes and projects. These are the Netherlands, Switzerland, Canada, and the Nordic countries.

The IUCN in the Baltic Region

The IUCN has 44 members in Eastern Europe and 259 members in Western Europe. In Central and Eastern Europe, the IUCN has national offices in the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Russia, and project offices in Bulgaria and Romania. The regional Europe office of the IUCN regularly publishes a Newsletter for Central and Eastern Europe, and besides the organisation has during late years been very active in Eastern Europe, where in connection with an Eastern Europe Programme a number of publications on different subjects were published, for instance 'Environmental Status Report' (several countries) and reports on 'Status of Integration of Biodiversity into NEAPs in Central and Eastern Europe', 'privatisation of Nature' and 'Tanks and Thyme - Biodiversity in Former Soviet Military Areas in Central Europe'.

Organisation and Decision Process

The IUCN is managed by a world congress (every third year) and a council, comprising the 'elected' president, 24 regional members selected by the world congress, representatives and chairmen of the six permanent commissions also selected by the congress. The commissions comprise a network of internationally leading technical, scientific, and political experts, who are working for the IUCN on a voluntary basis. The six commissions comprise:

	The Commission on Eco-System Management
	The Commission on Education and Communication
	The Commission on Environmental Law
	The Commission on Environmental Strategy and Planning
	The Commission on National parks and Protected Areas
	The Species Survival Commission

The structure and decision processes of the commissions are to a high degree 'flat' and directed towards ensuring an efficient exchange of information of high professional quality. The Commissions are among others active in arrangements of international conferences and workshops.

The IUCN has a global secretariat (the headquarters of which is in Switzerland), but the headquarters becomes still more decentralised with a total of 40 regional and country-based offices. Besides, there exist specialised offices such as the 'Environmental Law Centre' (Germany) and World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UK). A President, who is selected by the Council, manages the secretariat.

Fields of Activities

The fields of activities of the IUCN are collected in different main programmes:

	The Biodiversity Policy programme
	The Environmental Education and Communication programme
	The Environmental Law Centre
	The Forest Conservation Programme
	The Global Policy & Partnerships Units
	The Indigenous Peoples & Conservation Initiative
	The Marine and Coastal Programme
	The programme on Protected Areas
	The Antarctic Advisory Committee
	The Social Policy Group
	The Species Programme
	The Strategies for Sustainability Programme
	The Sustainable Use Initiative
	The TRAFFIC Network
	The Wetlands Programme
	The World Conservation Programme

It is possible within the different programmes to obtain up-to-date information on development tendencies, the actual condition, relevant institutions and contact persons, etc. in a number of countries. The greatest importance of the IUCN is in this connection probably the great resource of know-how available through the organisation.

Sources

The Danish Forest and Nature Protection Agency

Address

IUCN - World Headquarters
Rue Mauverney 28
CH-1196 Gland Switzerland

Tel.: +41 22 999 0001
E-mail: mail@hq.iucn.org

4.4.8 The World Trade Organisation, WTO (1995)

Purpose and Origin

The international debate on trade and the environment has obtained much political attention after the World Trade Organisation was founded in 1995. The overall objective of WTO is to ensure the greatest possible liberalisation of world trade as the promoter of global economic growth and development on a sustainable basis. The core task of WTO is to determine conditions for removal of impediments of international trade; this is a liberalisation project that can come into conflict with the desire to implement national and international adjustments (including of the trade policies) with regard to environment and human health.

Geographic Limits and Participants

As indicated by its name, the WTO is global, and all countries around the Baltic, except for Estonia and Russia, are members of the organisation.

Organisation and Decision Process

The work on trade and environment are institutionally connected to the WTO Committee for Trade and Environment (CTE). CTE was established in connection with the foundation of WTO upon strong pressure from the EU, with the task of looking into the relationship between trade-political and environmental measures and rules and on this background decide where modifications of WTO's rules are required. The Committee is open to all member countries of the WTO, and like the remaining part of the WTO system, it makes its decision by consensus. The committee has during its lifetime met 3-4 times annually, and up till today, it has not been possible to agree on recommendations for modifications to the WTO rules.

Fields of Activities and Impor tant Results

There are two central problems in the trade/environment debate: How can a liberalisation of World Trade help promoting a sustainable development, and how can it be made sure that the rules of WTO do not constitute an impediment to the society and individual countries for using the necessary instruments in environmental politics, and at the same time make sure that these are not used as instruments for hidden protectionism.

In the time, which has passed since CTE commenced its work in 1995, it has not been possible to obtain agreement on the modifications of the WTO rules, which include an important strengthening of the position of environmental consideration in world trade.This is among others due to the fact that it has not been possible to obtain approval of such modifications from the developing countries.The stagnation of the CTE negotiations is the reason why the EU is today the most eager advocate for making the trade/environment debate a central element of the new WTO trade round, which is scheduled to start on 1 January 2000.

Where a number of countries have given high priority to both continued trade liberalisation and a much better exploitation of the environment, the developing countries to a greater extent have to make a weighing of the regard to environmental protection on the one side and the population's insistent and legitimate requirements of a higher standard of living on the other side. For a great number of the developing countries, a stronger emphasis on environmental regards in WTO is considered a possible impediment for strengthening the countries' inclusion into the international trade cooperation.

Relations to the EU

As an element of the EC's external trade policy, the WTO carry out negotiations in accordance with the stipulations of the treaty, on behalf of the member countries. In the CTE negotiations, the EU has - with assistance from USA - been the mainspring behind the desire to make sure the environmental regard gets a more predominant role within international trade. The EU has given great emphasis to the adjustment of the use of trade instruments in international environmental agreements and has made a concrete proposal to modification of the related GATTrules.

Sources

Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Home page: http://www.wto.org/

5. Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)

5.1 The Role of NonGovernment Organisations in Environmental Policy in general

The inclusion of the non-government organisations into the work on environmental protection have great importance for the national understanding of the environmental problems and for balancing the solutions in relation to the various nongovernment organisations of the society.

5.2 Non-Government Organisations in the Baltic Area

Since the fall of the wall, new regional nongovernment organisations have been set up in the Baltic Area, including the 'green' organisations. Also global environmental organisations are working regionally in the Baltic Area.

5.2.1 Coalition Clean Baltic

Purpose and Origin

Coalition Clean Baltic was founded in February 1990 by non-governmental environmental organisations from countries around the Baltic in order to co-operate on subjects related to the Baltic. The main purpose of the CCB is to protect and improve the environment and the natural resources based on the following six principles:

	Sustainability must be accepted as the over-all principle and guideline in politics as well as within all other types of decisions.
	The natural environment, and the resources and environmental facilities provided by the natural environment, is a given and necessary restriction which should not be overruled by human activities. The concept of 'environmental space' is one of the access points to be taken into account as a basis for human activities in the area around the Baltic.
	The region around the Baltic should not be an unreasonable burden for the natural resources, the health of ecosystems, or people from other regions.The Baltic area should, to the extent possible, be made more self-sufficient as regards food, animal feed, wood, energy, and raw materials for the industry.
	The area around the Baltic should not export its waste products to other parts of the world. It is necessary to have the prices fixed correctly - consumption of resources and activities that are destructive to the environment must bear their correct ecological costs.
	Only a cross-sectorial access is possible and practicable in order to crease sustainable nations and a sustainable Baltic Area.
	Public attention, acceptance, and participation are essential in a process to create a sustainable Baltic area. Any effort must be made to obtain democracy and equality, to provide the inhabitants of the region with education, information, encouragement, and practical ways of participation in order to motivate and encourage them in the process.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The coalition includes 26 organisations from Denmark, Finland, Germany, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia.

Organisation and Decision Process

The CCB carries out the tasks on a local level through the many grass-root movements.

Fields of Activities

In order to reach their objectives, the CCB has chosen to concentrate their efforts on five areas of activities:

	Promotion of ecological engineering work and ecological solutions in order to reduce the quantity of nutrients in water.
	River monitoring / river basin management.
	Protection of naturally spawned salmon.
	Avoid hazardous installations and activities in the area around the Baltic.
	Protection of the archipelago of the Baltic.

Financing and Environmental Resources

The Swedish natural protection association and the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (SIDA) sponsor the different projects that the CCB is working on.The funding reaches approx. $ 250,000 annually.

Sources

www.lanet.lv/org/ccb

Address

International Secretariat
C/o Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
P.O. Box 4625
S-116 91 Stockholm
Sweden

Tel.: +46 18 42 20 15 / +46 86 43 65 95
Fax: +46 18 42 21 21 / +46 86 43 65 95
unnar Noren, Executive Secretary
Eva Lagerstedt, Coordinator

E-mail: Gunnar.Noren@snf.se
Eva.Lagerstedt@snf.se

5.2.2 The World Wildlife Foundation (1961) International Baltic Programme

Purpose and Origin

The WWF was founded in 1961 and is today the biggest nature and environment organisation of the world, with offices in 50 countries and approx. five million support members. The purpose of WWF's work is:

	to preserve the variety of life forms of nature, the biological diversity
	to make sure that the exploitation of the natural resources is done in a sustainable way
	to combat pollution and unnecessary consumption of resources

Geographic Limits and Participants

The WWF consists of a network of organisations distributed on more than 50 countries. Within the Baltic Area, there are offices in Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden, and Germany.

Organisation and Decision Process

The network of the WWF comprises 27 national organisations, 5 co-operation partners, 21 programme offices, and approx. 5 million members.

Fields of Activities and Essential Results in Eastern Europe

Sustainable development is the heading of the work of the WWF in Eastern Europe, and agriculture, forestry, freshwater, and waters and coastal areas have been given special priority. A number of the environmental problems that are today known to be the consequence of the intensive exploitation of nature can still be avoided in Eastern Europe. However, this is not going to be easy since the countries need income, for instance from exportation of natural resources, which often collides with the more long-term sustainable solutions.

The WWF has put special focus on the upcoming extension of the EU, which might entail environmental problems, for instance if the present agricultural policy is transferred without any modifications. However, the extension also opens for the opportunities to promote a sustainable development and strengthen the environmental legislation of the countries.

The WWF gives high priority to demonstration projects. In co-operation with the local authorities, the organisation combines protection of environment and nature with support for regional development. The WWF seeks to disseminate understanding for the fact that natural values and a clean environment are actives that can open up for new opportunities for economic development in the form of nature tourism and profiling of the area as an exponent for quality and clean products.

In the western part of Latvia, the WWF has been working in two coastal areas, among others at he Pape lake, where a great number of threatened species of birds exist in the vast forest of reeds and the fresh meadows. Among others the wolf and the elk are found in the forests around the lake. The WFF has helped, among others with the purchase of a reeds reaper; at the same time, plans are being made how to carry out the reeds reaping without causing damage to the natural values.

In the delta of the Nemuras river in Lithuania, the WWF help creating a regional park (250 km²), which both gives place for the 5,000 inhabitants of the area and for the great natural values. The area in included under the Ramsar Convention on protection of wetlands of international importance, and can include up to 50,000 whitefronted guese. Many seldom species of birds breed here, among others the threatened corn-crakes, great snipes, and aquatic warblers.The delta includes unique types of landscapes as a consequence of the recurrent floods of the vast, fresh meadows.

Besides, the WWF's Panda Prize has twice gone to projects in Eastern Europe. The first time was in 1994 for the WWF Forestry project in Latvia, which is a model project for sustainable forestry.The prize went for a survey of the relation between various types of forestry and impact on the biodiversity of the area. In 1998, the price went to the Estonian Fund for Nature for a project in the Alam-Pedja Nature Reservoir. The project among others comprises information of the natural values of Alam Pedja to schoolchildren and for support to natural tourism of the area.

In Russia, the WWF is especially working on securing the unique Russian network of natural protection areas, representing all of the most important types of nature in the country, i.e. tundra, steppe, mountains, lakes, rivers, delta, coasts, and forests. Among the great number of species of animals that are dependent on these areas, the following can be mentioned: The Siberian tiger, Asiatic white crane, snow leopard, and the brown bear. Several of these species are close to extermination.

In many places in Russia, the areas are threatened by huge political and financial changes. The WWF is among others trying to safeguard the areas by strengthening their importance for the local society. In many poor agricultural areas, a protected nature area may help giving the area a special profile and identity and ensure international attention.

The WWF has carried out a project in three reserves in western Russia: Nizhnersvirsky at the Ladoga Lake, the Bryansk forests at the border of Ukraine, and Okski at the head of the Volga river.The areas are of great importance; for instance the Bryansk forests represent the only large forest area in this part of Russia.

Financing and Resources for Envi ronment

The WWF gets its funds from donations, national organisations, grants, foundations, governments, relief organisations, royalties, own income, and others.

Sources

The global WWF network is available on the following home page: www.panda.org The Danish home page is found on the following address: www.wwf.dk

Address

WWF DENMARK
Ryesgade 3F
DK-2200 Copenhagen N
Tel.: +45 35 36 36 35
Fax: +45 35 24 78 68

E-mail: wwf@wwf.dk

Director: Anne-Marie Nielsen
Secretary-General: Kim Carstensen

5.2.3 Baltic Sea Business Advisory Council (BAC) (1996)

Purpose and Origin

The BAC was formed in the summer of 1996 by the Economic Working Group (WGEC) of the Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) at the initiative of the European Commission.

The main purpose is to identify bottlenecks for the financial development and propose possible solutions to this. The Council also tries to promote trade, investments, inventions and contacts in the countries and regions of the Baltic Sea. The BAC also seeks to keep close contact to the various governments in order to ensure the best possible conditions for free markets, clarify the potential for independents and the exploitations of business possibilities.

Geographic Limits and Participants

The BAC has a member in each of the countries in the CBSS. The delegated parties have all been nominated by a special organisation identified by the Government. The delegated from Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and Germany have contacts in the political world, whereas Norway, Finland, and Lithuania have delegated from workers or industrial unions.

Organisation and Decision Process

The delegated persons meet and discuss where to go in to obtain the desired results. The group selects a president, who is the chairman.

Fields of Activities and essential Results

The field of activities of BAC is the trade between the Baltic countries. So far their most important results have been a memorandum on requests for action by Government, which is a survey of a great number of problems that must be solved in order to optimise business in the area. The memorandum was sent to all heads of state in the Baltic countries.

BAC also organises a forum named 'business meets politics' in order to facilitate the dialogue between the state and the industries.

Relations to the EU

BAC was founded on the initiative of the EU.

Sources

For further information, please contact:

The Secretariat for Financial Support to Eastern Europe

Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Tel.: +45 33 92 00 00
E-mail: um@um.dk

6. Follow-Up

One of the most important environmental problems of the region is the pollution of the Baltic, where it is to some extent possible to solve the problems from waterborne pollution by a regional effort. Another of the big problems of the region is the air pollution, where the trans-boundary pollution first and foremost comes from the west and to some extent from other countries outside the region; therefore measures to be taken demand broader cooperation. Whereas nature is impoverished in Denmark, it is quite well preserved in some of the other parts of the region, where the population density is lower. However, in the eastern part of the region, the nature management faces great and urgent tasks concurrently with the ongoing development towards market economy, and due to the privatisation process.

The environmental problems compared with the Conventions show that there is an international co-operation, which to a wide extent covers the overall environmental problems in connection with climate, air, water, and nature.

The large part of the co-operation within the field of environment is global or takes part under the framework of the ECE, which also includes the ECE member states and countries having consultation status with the ECE. The other Conventions are regional; however, Canada is a member of the Convention of the European Council on criminal protection of the environment.

Only within the field of port environment are there both global and regional Conventions, which in some fields adjust the same subjects. The regional Convention typically includes more strict guidelines than the global convention; an example is the Helsinki Convention and the London Convention within the field of dumping. This gives an opportunity to work for a tighteningup of the global convention based on regional experience, but this requires coordination and a rational planning of the work with the responsible environmental authorities.

The regional conventions within the field of port environment cover various port fields -with an overlap of OSPAR and HELCOM in the Kattegat, which increases the need for coordination.

An ongoing updating of the information as to which countries are parties to which Convention can be found on the following internet address:

http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/.

Some of the conventions within the field of air are global. A reason why the results, especially in the industrialised countries, are still not satisfactory could be that there is a need for further international agreements on adjustment of sources. In this connection, the field of transportation might be a possibility. As appears from Chapter 3.2.6, such work has been commenced by the adoption of the Vienna Declaration, and the work goes on within the WHO.

The extension of the EU towards the East has commenced a very targeted effort to satisfy the EU legislation, also in the accession countries of the Baltic region. This development will help improving the environmental situation in the Baltic region. The challenge for the Central and Eastern European countries is to make environmental legislation which does not only implement or adapt to the EU legislation in force (legal implementation), but which is also being followed up upon by efficient opportunities for enforcement and sanctions (physical implementation). The last mentioned task thus goes far beyond and is closely connected to the need for a competent and well-educated organisation or environmental authorities, since the enforcement of legal legislation is a national task for the individual member states.

Time will show how the transfer to market economies and the privatisation of agricultural, forestry, and nature areas in Eastern Europe will have impact on the environment and nature, but there is no doubt that many o the private owners of the agricultural and forestry areas will be under pressure as far as economy is concerned, or they will be tempted to make quick use of the existing resources, for instance by felling of old forest areas with valuable timber or intensified exploitation of agricultural areas. New technical systems and extension of the infrastructure will affect other nature areas.The development will most probably be reinforced concurrently with the coming into force of the EU's new funding arrangements to the applicant countries.

The work is ongoing. We are working on developing strategies for sustainable development and the majority of the cooperation forums has already incorporated their thoughts behind sustainable development and sector integration in their work. The challenges concern co-ordination of this work in a convenient way, so that the individual elements can supplement each other.

Sources and References

Illustrations

Map 2.3.1:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 75, HELCOM

Table 2.3.1:
Recommendations for Updating and Strengthening (omslag), March 1998, Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme, HELCOM

Map 2.3.2:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 75, HELCOM

Graph 2.4.1, 2.4.2, and 2.4.3
EMEP, based on data from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute

Map 2.4.1:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 64A, HELCOM

Table 2.4.1:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 70, HELCOM

Map 2.4.2:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 64A, HELCOM

Map 2.4.3:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 64A, HELCOM

Graph 2.4.4:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 64A, HELCOM

Graph 2.4.5:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 64A, HELCOM

Map 2.4.4:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 64A, HELCOM

Map 2.4.5:
Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings nr. 73, HELCOM

Map 2.4.6:
Europe`s Environment: The Second Assessment (Map 9.6), European Environment Agency.

Map 2.4.7:
Europe`s Environment: The Second Assessment (Map 9.9), European Environment Agency.

Graph 2.5.1
Graph 2.5.2
Graph 2.5.3
Graph 2.5.4
Graph 2.5.5
EMEP, based on data from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute

Map 2.5.1:
Europe`s Environment: The Second Assessment (Map 4.4, page 83), European Environment Agency.

Map 2.5.2:
Europe`s Environment: The Second Assessment (Map 4.5), European Environment Agency.

Map 2.5.3:
Europe`s Environment: The Dobris Assessment (Map 3.4), European Environment Agency.

Table 2.5.1
Table 2.5.2
EMEP/MSC-W Status Report 1998, Norwegian Meteorological Institute

Map 2.5.4:
Europe`s Environment: The Dobris Assessment (Map 4.4), European Environment Agency.

Map 2.5.5:
Calculation and Maping of Critical Thresholds in Europe (Figur 1-5), Convention on LongRange Transboundary Air Polluton of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.

Table 2.6.1
Table 2.6.2
Based on data from the International Safety Centre and the Danish Agency of Contingency Measures

Map 2.7.1:
Europe`s Environment: The Second Assessment (Map 8.1), European Environment Agency.

Literature:

BKI Nr. 110 af 20/10/1994 (Gældende): Bekendtgørelse af aftale af 17. marts 1992 om beskyttelse af små hvaler i østersøen og Nordsøen.

European Environment Agency, 1995. Europe's Environment. The Dobrâs Assessment.(EEDA)

European Environment Agency, 1998. Europe's Environment. The Second Assessment.(EESA)

Internationalt fiskeri- og miljøsamarbejde. - 1.rev. Januar 1995, TemaNord, 1995:504

Lærebog i folkeret, Alf Ross, Ole Stig Andersen, Tyge Lehmann, Per Magid, Nyt Nordisk Forlag Arnold Busk, 1984.

Miljø- og Energiministeriet, Miljøstyrelsen, 1997. EUs udvidelse mod øst - miljømæssige perspektiver.

Møller, H. S. 1995: Denmark. Conservation, Management and Restoration of Wetlands

Radioactivity in the Baltic Sea, Marina Balt Project 1996-1998, draft report, Risø National Laboratory.

Vejledning vedrùrende indgÚelse af traktater, Udenrigsministeriet 1984

Conventions and Co-operation

Abbreviations