Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region
2. Trans-Boundary Environmental Problems in the Baltic Region
2.1 The Broader Perspective
The European environmental cooperation has so far been part of the different organisation bodies (the EU, OECD, ECE, Nordic Co-operation) as part of these cooperation bodies' general political-financial cooperation. On the basis of this, the environmental co-operation has developed to be more specific and targeted at solving problems in the environment, where especially the trans-boundary pollution media - air and water - have attracted international attention. Due to the fact that the trans-boundary pollution and its effects migrate to many countries, an international common interest has come up in solving these problems, despite the differences that normally split the countries.
In April 1987, the World Commission for Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) published its report. This report contains a long series of recommendations and principles as to which modifications are necessary in order to make the development in all parts of the world more sustainable. Sustainable development means a development that meets the requirements of this generation without destroying the possibilities of meeting the requirements of future generations. This means that the economy, trade and industry, etc. must develop in accordance with the natural basis of the individual parts of the world, countries or regions.
The report concentrated on the fact that the environmental problems are to a greater extent of trans-boundary and global nature and that sustainable deve-lopment demands a broad international cooperation. The need for economic and social development for the present and future generations in the North and the South should be seen in close connection with the need for protecting environmental and natural resources.
In continuation of the Brundtland Report, the UN held a global conference about Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. At this conference, the following ideas were widely accepted:
 | Sustainable development is an overall target for social development |
| Sustainable development includes an environmental, economic and social dimension |
| Sustainable development does not only demand national efforts, but efforts on all levels - from the global level to the local level, at the grassroots level and at consumer and industry level |
| Sustainable development requires international cooperation |
The result of the conference was a declaration containing a number of principles for sustainable development and an Agenda 21, which is a global agenda for sustainable development in the 21st century. Also a UN commission for sustainable development was established, the objective of which is to co-ordinate and monitor the implementation of Agenda 21.
Five years after the Conference in Rio, the UN held in 1997 a special General Assembly about environment and development (UNGASS). At this meeting, the heads of state agreed on the framework for the continued implementation of Agenda 21. The conclusion was that even if we have seen some progress in a number of fields, the situation of our World has worsened since 1992. The necessity of integrating environmental, social and economic objectives and developing integrated policies for the individual sectors was stressed. The member countries were urged to develop national strategies for sustainable development no later than year 2002. The general conclusion was that sustainable development can only be realised through continuation and strengthening of the efforts in all countries, and Agenda 21 should continue to be the basis for national and international efforts.
A comprehensive co-operation is taking place in the countries around the Baltic in order to encourage sustainable development. A number of the Baltic countries are developing national and local strategies for sustainable development and forming commissions for sustainable development. Hereto comes that a number of cities have declared objectives for sustainability.
In 1998, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs in the Baltic Region approved a regional action plan for the development in seven economically and environmentally impor-tant sectors, named Baltic Agenda 21. The purpose of this is to further a regional cooperation to improve the living and wor-king conditions of the population on a sustainable basis. An important element of the agenda is to further the sectorial integration, i.e. incorporate the environ-mental consideration into the work of the various sectors. The environmental consideration should be included into the decisions on the same level as economic and social considerations, if the objective of sustainable development is to be fulfilled. The political responsibility of implementing the agenda within their own sector lies with the sectors themselves.
In 1992, the Baltic Council was set up. All countries surrounding the Baltic as well as the European Commission are members. The purpose of the council is to further the democratic and economic development in the region. The Council functions as an umbrella organisation for a number of sub-regional actors, such as the Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Co-operation, the Union of Baltic Cities, etc. In 1996, the Council approved a series of action programmes, including a programme for the environment in the Baltic, and the followup on the environmental programme lies with HELCOM.
Except for Russia, all of the Eastern European countries around the Baltic have applied for accession to the EU. Through membership of the EU, the countries will be able to contribute to the process of integration of environment in the sector policies of the community (in accordance with the new Treaty of Amsterdam and the Cardiff Process). In the EU, the sectors of agriculture, energy and transport have so far been selected to prepare a strategy of how the sectors are going to integrate environment and sustainable development.
In order to strengthen the common identity and the co-operation with among others the remaining countries of Europe, Finland has taken the initiative that the Baltic countries will formulate a Northern Dimension themselves. This can be the point of departure for special common requirements in connection with international cooperation and for co-ordination of the support to the new countries of the region.
2.2 The Way to a sustainable Development, based on the Pollution Phenomena
Air and water pollution will continuously be the way in which we are confronted with the trans-boundary pollution problems. There is therefore good reason to use the various pollution phenomena, the way they are presented to day, as a point of departure.
When saying 'pollution', we normally think of the pollution created by humans. However, nature is not 'clean' in itself. Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and sandstorms also contribute to the pollution by a number of well-known substances. Therefore, the appearance of a well-known substance is only pollution when it is found in inconvenient places and in inconvenient quantities and thereby has undesirable effects, for instance impact on the health or wellbeing of human beings, decompo-sition of materials, harm to animals and vegetation, or deterioration of human beings' opportunities to use the resources of nature.
The substances that are let out from a source of pollution will migrate to the surroundings. A possible outlet may cause pollution in many different places depending on the migration, which again depends on wind or water flows and on geographic conditions. Conversely, the pollution found in a certain place may originate from many different sources. It is of great importance when assessing both effects and interventions against the pollution that the pollution often migrates through the different media of pollution, for instance air pollution causes direct impact on humans, animals, plants and materials, but it also influences soil and water and causes damages here.
A better understanding of the pollution media and the migration of the pollution is an important first step towards prevention and minimisation of the pollution, and towards implementation of the principles for a sustainable development.Today, the knowledge of 'single let-outs' especially from industrial sources, agriculture, transport, etc. is rather comprehensive, and so far a long series of initiatives have been taken to reduce this type of pollution.
Our knowledge about the connection between the pollution and the activities/behaviour of human beings during a lifetime is, however, still quite limited. Therefore Agenda 21 also points out the production and consumption pattern as being the most important reason for the continued deterioration of global environ-ment - especially in the industrialised countries. An important condition for ob-taining a sustainable development is there-fore major modifications of the present production and consumption patterns.To be able to implement the necessary modifi-cations, a detailed knowledge about the connection between behaviour, production and pollution is required.
Since an important part of the environmental problems are related to the increased consumption of products, there is an increasing need for reducing the impact on environment from the large number of products that we produce, export, import, consume and throw away. In other words, it is important to look at the composition of the environmental impact of the products in their entire life cycle on order to be able to prioritise the efforts in this way and give the consumer a possibility on the one hand to select the products that have least impact on the environment, on the other hand to modify their consumption pattern. In each individual part of the life cycle of the product, it is necessary to have easy access to reliable information about the environmental qualities of the products and the substances. For industry, also information about cleaner technologies is important. In this connection, integration of environmental consideration in the sectors is a central tool, since it is important that the different sectors integrate the regard to environment, for instance in the product-related support systems of the sectors. A large part of the products is either imported or exported. This means that the products are today often produced in another place than where they are used and disposed of.To take the products to the place of consumption, they are transported a long way. The transport is assured either by lorries, train, ship or plane. In order to obtain flexibility and fast distribution at the door of the consumer, an increasing number of products are transported by lorry and by plane over a long distance. These types of transport are today those having biggest impact on the environment.
Production, consumption, disposal and transport of products give a diversified pollution - both in the country of production and in the countries that consume and dispose of the products. The transport of products contributes to noise and air pollution in the transit countries and to the greenhouse effect. International commerce therefore contributes to the transboundary pollution. Increasing international commerce is on the political agenda as a means of growth and development. However, it will be necessary to do something about the negative impact on the environment that follows, and here development and sale of cleaner products are essential factors. In this connection, EU's inner market and WTO are in focus.
Also in the Baltic Region, the development goes towards intensified trade between the countries. Experience shows that countries, which are close to each other geographically also, do much trade with each other. In fact, the three Baltic countries have also formed an area of free trade, which has led to relatively intensified trade. The countries of Eastern Europe are generally redirecting their trade towards the western countries, among others through the coming memberships of the EU. Increased trade between the countries lays more pressure on transport routes, etc. and the countries surrounding the Baltic have a common interest in developing the infrastructure. The Baltic is an important common transport route of the region and the development of port facilities, airports, railways, etc. should be co-ordinated with a view to using the resources as well as possible and causing the least possible environmental impact. This requires a better co-operation within the field of transport, based on the principles of sustainable development.
Map 2.3.1
Bathymetry of the Baltic Sea
2.3 The Baltic
The Baltic is one of the largest areas of brackish water in the world. In the centre of the sea, the Baltic is almost fresh, whereas at the uttermost end towards the Skagerrak, it is almost oceanic. At intervals of a few years, there are inflows of salt bilge water over the thresholds of the Danish seas. Hereby oxygen-containing water flows into the Baltic, which gives new opportunities for flora and fauna to colonise the seabed. The latest major renewals of the bilge water took place in 1993 and to a minor extent in 1994. In 1995 and 1996, the conditions were dominated by a low oxygen content in the lower parts of the Baltic. The salt water inflow in the autumn of 1997 only led to a short increase of the oxygen concentrations, when the water was hot due to the very hot summer and the oxygen consumption therefore correspondingly high. The average retention time of the water in the Baltic is approx. 35 years. The long average retention time of the water has the consequence that especially substances that are not easily decomposable, and which at the same time are NOxious to the environment, may be accumulated in the Baltic.
The average water depth in the Baltic is 52 m, but at some places the depth may be down to 459 m. The Baltic has the shape of a long, flat basin with a few deep areas (cf. map 2.3.1). The deep areas of the Baltic are normally oxygen-free and thereby almost without life, since only some bacteria are able to live under oxygen-free conditions. The low oxygen content is a natural phenomenon, which is intensified by the addition of nutrient salts, which are results of human activities. The nutrient salts cause eutrophication, followed by a risk of oxygen depletion.
The area of water run-off to the Baltic covers approx. 1,745,000 km2, with a population of approx. 380 million people. The basic figures for the countries surrounding the Baltic are presented in Table 2.3.1.
Map 2.3.2 on the next page shows how the water run-off area is distributed on the individual countries. The entire water runoff from Poland ends in the Baltic, whereas only a limited part of the water runoff from Norway ends here.
Table 2.3.1
Basic figures for countries in the Baltic Sea region.
Map 2.3.2
The water run-off area of the Baltic Sea
2.4 Pollution of Sea and Water Environment
2.4.1 General Impact on the Water Environment
The substances polluting the water can be divided into two groups; the substances that use oxygen and which are part of the ecological circle, and the substances which - above a certain level - have acute or chronic NOxious impacts on plants, animals and human beings. These are heavy metals, pesticides, other chlorinated hydrocarbons (PCB), and other NOxious, slowly decomposable and/or bioaccummulating poisons.
The substances that pollute the sea and water environment originate from many different sources. The sources can often be divided into:
Point sources:
| Household wastewater and outlets from urban wastewater treatment plants |
| Agriculture (stocks of natural manure, fertiliser, pesticides) |
| Industry (wastewater and air pollution) |
| Fish farms |
| Water reservoirs |
| Waste deposits and landfills |
| Energy and heat production as well as combustion of waste |
Non-point sources:
| Run-off from agricultural soil |
| Transport (air pollution) |
| Scattered houses |
Pollution of waters, coastal zones, water courses and lakes takes place by polluting substances being washed out from the fields or led to fresh and marine areas, for instance together with the wastewater. Part of the pollution, primarily nitrogen, may also be added through the air in the form of rain or particles settling on the water surface.
When large quantities of nitrogen are added, for instance through washout from the fields, the number of plankton algae is strongly increased. Hereby the risks of oxygen depletion are also increased, because plankton algae use oxygen when they die and rot. When big quantities of algae die and sediment, the oxygen consumption will be so huge that large waters are destroyed. The growth of plankton algae and other plants are during a large part of the year controlled by the quantity of nitrogen and the sea temperature.
The concentration of oxygen in the water is of vital importance for a varied fauna. If the oxygen content falls below 4 mg per litre, there will be a lack of oxygen. Mobile bottom-living fauna such as fish will seek away, whereas the other parts of the bottom living fauna will not thrive. If the oxygen content falls further below 2 mg per litre, there is a risk that areas without oxygen will develop at the bottom. Hereby hydrogen sulphide will be released, which is mortal for fauna and flora.We have for instance seen many cases of oxygen depletion in the Danish waters.
Besides, water courses and wetlands are exposed to tremendous physical impacts from among others damming with a view to water catchment and hydroelectricity, deepening, straightening out and draining as well as reduction of forests and wetlands, all factors that have impact on the fauna and flora.
2.4.2 Pollution of Sea and Water Environment in the Baltic
The water pollution of the Baltic originates from various sources from land and from water run-off from rivers, lakes, etc. The most important sources of pollution do not differ from the above mentioned sources of pollution.
Aerobic Substances
The total outlet of aerobic organic substances to the Baltic is 1.14 million tons. The distribution on the individual countries appears from graph 2.4.1. Of the overall load, 0.11 million tons originate from urban wastewater, which is led directly into the Baltic, 0.10 million originate from direct discharges of industrial wastewater. The remaining part, which is the biggest, originates from rivers and watercourses.
Graph 2.4.1
BOD7-load from rivers and direct discharges
HELCOM has estimated that the outlet of aerobic substances has been reduced by 80% in the period from 1991-92 to 1995. The aerobic substances only have impact on flora and fauna in areas of the Baltic in which very huge quantities are discharged into sensible coastal waters.
Map 2.4.1
Nitrate and phosphate in the Baltic Sea
Nitrogen and Phosphorous
For many years, huge quantities of nutrient salts (nitrogen and phosphorous) have been let out into the Baltic from the catchment area and the atmosphere.The concentration of nitrogen and phosphorous is shown in graph 2.4.1. This has caused increased production of plant plankton. In the major parts of the Baltic, the growth of algae is reduced by the lack of nitrogen and therefore supplies of nitrogen quickly results in increased growth of algae. However, the presence of phosphorous reduces the growth of algae in the Gulf of Bothnia, in parts of the Bothnian Sea and in the Gulf of Riga as well as in some local areas.
Graph 2.4.2
Land based nitrogen load on the Baltic Sea
Nitrogen pollution originates from wastewater, air pollution and leaching from cultivated land, forests and nature areas.
The land-based pollution is widely influenced by the precipitation pattern the year in question, because the precipitationcontrolled leaching of nitrogen from cultivated and non-cultivated areas represent the major part of the addition of nitrogen. It is therefore hard to see clear tendencies of development. The land-based nitrogen load on the Baltic is shown in graph 2.4.2. In 1995, the total load of nitrogen from land was 760,000 tons. Because the majority of the nitrogen originates from nonpoint sources (precipitation, etc.) it is not possible to control the quantity of nitrogen supplies from the non-point sources, which may cause problems at the wastewater treatment plants. Therefore the same positive tendency of a reduction of the nitrogen load can not be seen, which is the case for organic material and phosphorous. Phosphorous primarily originates from point sources, which are more easily controlled.
Graph 2.4.3
Phosforous load from the countries around the Baltic Sea
The nitrogen load from the air (precipitation etc.) was 300,000 tons in 1995. HELCOM estimates that in the 10-year period from 1986 to 1995, there has been a reduction of the atmospheric contribution of nitrogen of approx. 25%, primarily as a consequence of reduced air pollution. Based on model predictions, HELCOM has assessed that 65% of the atmospheric load originates from the countries surrounding the Baltic, whereas the remaining 35% originate from countries such as Great Britain, France, The Netherlands, and Czech Republic.
The phosphor load of the Baltic and the lakes in the catchment of the Baltic area is primarily due to wastewater discharges. An amelioration of the treatment of urban wastewater has reduced the outlet of phosphorous.
HELCOM estimates that the phosphorous outlet has been reduced by 50% in the period 1991-1992 to 1995. Outlet of phosphorous is the most important threat to the environmental quality of the lakes, and it is estimated that there is a need for increased efforts to reduce the phosphorous load on the most vulnerable lakes. The phosphorous load from the countries around the Baltic and the development of the load in 1995 are shown in graph 2.4.3.
Heavy Metals
Pollution by heavy metals (primarily mercury, lead and cadmium) originates from urban wastewater, industrial wastewater, and non-point sources, such as cadmium leaching from cultivated soil. Air pollution also contributes to pollution by heavy metals, among others by lead from petrol exhaust gasses. Figure 2.4.1 shows HELCOM's estimate of the heavy metals discharge into the Baltic in 1995. However, data are missing for Denmark and from rivers in Latvia (only data on mercury) and Russia (only data on mercury and cadmium). All data for Estonia are from 1994.
Surveys from the environmental survey programme of the Helsinki Commission indicate that the main part of the land-based load of heavy metals into the Baltic (approx. 90%) originates from wastewater outlet and nonpoint sources into the rivers. The remaining 10% originate from the direct outlet into the Baltic of urban and industrial wastewater. Some heavy metals are dissolved (for instance cadmium) and are therefore carried a long way in the water column. Others (for instance mercury) are particle-bound and are more quickly bound to the bottomsediment. Consequently, a great part of the particle bound heavy metals are retained in the bottom sediment in watercourses and lakes. The total discharge of heavy metals is thus higher than the one measured.
Table 2.4.1
Heavy metal discharge into the Baltic Sea 1995
Map 2.4.2
Cadmium in fish
Analyses show that the content of cadmium and copper in water has been reduced by 6-7% annually since the 1980'ies. The content of heavy metals, especially cadmium, in fish does, however, not decrease correspondingly, as can be seen from map 2.4.2. This can possibly be explained from physiological conditions, which influence the absorption of heavy metals in fish.
The assessments of the heavy metals impact from the air are subject to great uncertainties. The lead load is, as an average for the years 1991-94, estimated at approx. 600 tons annually, i.e. in the same order as the land-based load. This means that there has been a reduction of the atmospheric lead load of the Baltic by 60%, when comparing the period 1986-90 with the period 1991-95. The reduction of the atmospheric lead load of the Baltic is partly due to a remarkable reduction of the use of lead-containing petrol from 47% of the petrol consumption in 1989 to 12% in 1995, and partly that a number of industries in the countries subject to conversion have been closed or have reduced their production significantly. For cadmium, the figures regarding load on the Baltic from the air are approx. 25 tons, or almost equivalent to the land-based load.
Map 2.4.3
Pesticides
In total, it is estimated that there is a certain reduction of the supply of heavy metals from the air and in the content of metals in the seawater. However, data are missing, as well as an understanding of the mechanisms that control the decomposition of heavy metals.
Pesticides and other Toxic Substances
No data are available for discharge of pesticides and other toxic substances into the Baltic.
However, there has been a clear reduction of the concentrations of PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) and DDT in the musculature of herrings in the period 1978 to 1993, cf. map 2.4.3. This is due to the fact that the discharge of organic halogen compounds from for instance the paper pulp industry has been reduced by almost 90% since 1987. Despite this, the concentrations were still many times higher in the Baltic in 1993 than in the open parts of the North Sea and the Atlantic.
Graph 2.4.4
Nesting success of the fish hawk in the Baltic region
In 1970, it was discovered that DDT and to some extent PCB caused reductions of the thickness of egg-shells for birds living from fish and mussels in the Baltic, for instance the fish hawk. This caused reproduction problems for certain species of birds. However, since the drastic reduction in the 1950'ies, the fish hawk has come back and a huge increase in the number of brooding birds has been registered, as appears from graph 2.4.4.
The earlier catastrophic reduction in the number of seals in the Baltic now seems to have changed and the population is slowly increased in number, for instance the number of grey seals has increased considerably in the northern parts of the Baltic since the mid-80'ies. However, the level of organic chlorinated solvents is still very high in seals coming from the Baltic, even if the Baltic countries have agreed to reduce the discharge of this type of substances.
Algae
In the Baltic, a boom in the growth of bluegreen algae takes place every year, and these are often toxic. In the summer of 1997, the greatest appearance of a toxic blue-green alga (Nodularia) so far was observed in Danish waters. Because of the hot water and the modest wind, the algae had in some periods optimum conditions and spread far into the Kattegat. In 1998, the biggest quantity of plant plankton for 10 years was measured in the Gulf of Riga.
Graph 2.4.5
Number of grey seacls in various parts of the Baltic Sea
Map 2.4.4
Ship-based oil transport 1995
Radioactive Substances
Radioactive substances are found naturally in the Baltic and are added from human activities. The most important substances in the Baltic are Caesium-137 (Cs137) and Strontium-90 (Sr90).
Since the accident at Tjernobyl in 1986, the levels of radioactive substances in seawater, flora and fauna in the Baltic have been decreasing, especially for Cs137. The concentrations are in general low, but still 10 times higher than the concentrations in the North Sea, and this makes the Baltic one of the most radioactively polluted waters in the World (cf. Chapter 2.6).
Oil Spill
The ship traffic in the Baltic is intensive, and despite high-technology navigation systems it is difficult to navigate in the area, which increases the risk of accidents. The important oil ports are found in Latvia (Ventspils), Finland (Porvoo) and in the Danish straits. If all extension plans for the Baltic Area are implemented, a doubling of the quantity of oil transport is foreseen. Offshore oil and gas investigations are today limited to a few places near Germany and Poland.
Map 2.4.5
Oil spillages observed by natural surveillance flights
The ship-based oil transport in the Baltic is shown on map 2.4.4. The number of observed oil outlets from ships in 1996 appears from map 2.4.5 and has been increasing during late years. Major oil spills (>225 tons) are on the average found 3 times a year and cause great damage on coasts and sea birds. However, the main problem concerning the oil pollution in the Baltic concerns the land-based outlet, which mainly takes place through drains. This quantity is estimated at 20,000- 70,000 tons annually.
Map 2.4.6
Organic matter in European rivers
The Quality of Habitats
More than 80% of all habitats along the coasts of the Baltic are exposed to impacts. The threatened habitats are primarily dune areas and wetlands and areas below the salt metalimnion. Construction works, dredging and dumping, some types of fishing, coastal erosion and tourism, threatens the environment.
Rivers
Map 2.4.6 shows the content of aerobic substances in a number of watercourses around the Baltic. The figure shows the biological oxygen consumption (BOD5 and BOD7) and the chemical oxygen consumption (COD), depending on which data are available. It appears from the map that there are great differences in the conditions of the watercourses. The differences reflect the population density compared to the water flow of the watercourses and the extension of the biological purification of the wastewater. Of the watercourses for which measurements are available, the Polish and Lithuanian water courses are the most contaminated. The Latvian, Estonian and Danish water courses are in an intermediary category, whereas the Swedish and Finnish are very clean.
The impact of letting out environmental poisons in watercourses is especially connected to point sources such as industries, storages of environmental poisons, and waste deposits.
However, there is a tendency of amelioration, especially in the most contaminated rivers. This is due to the fact that a number of environmentally contaminating industries in Poland and the Baltic countries have been closed, or that they only produce a minor part of their capacity, but it is also due to improved wastewater purification. These improvements can be expected to continue concurrently with the implementation of the directive on purification of urban wastewater (91/271/EØF) and the new framework directive for EU's efforts within the water area.
Physical interventions, the purpose of which is to improve the drainage capabilities, and interventions reducing the number of wetlands and forests, are of greatest importance in densely populated areas and intensively cultivated areas with rich soil. Impoundments with a view to produce hydro-electricity are mostly widespread in areas in which the fall of the rivers is high and where the water level is high.
Lakes
Map 2.4.7 shows the phosphorous content in a minor selection of the lakes around the Baltic. As can be seen, there is a great difference in the conditions of the lakes. These differences reflect the population density in the catchment area of the lakes, the extension of farming, the loss of phosphorous from the cultivated land, and finally the extent to which phosphorous is removed from the wastewater. The Danish and Polish lakes are most contaminated, the lakes in the Baltic countries are found in an intermediary category, whereas the lakes in Sweden and Finland are cleanest.
The extent to which environmental surveys have been carried out concerning the impact of environmental poisons on the flora and fauna in lakes is rather limited and does not allow a general assessment.
The impact of water catchment on the environmental quality of lakes is limited and primarily related to lakes located in the areas where water catchment takes place for major urban communities.
It seems that the environmental condition of the lakes has been slightly improved, but efforts are still needed in order to improve the environmental conditions of a number of lakes. Efforts are especially needed to protect lakes with a very high environmental quality (very oligotrophic) against phosphorous leaching from cultivated areas and forests. Protection and restoration of wet areas will play an important and positive part. EU's framework directive will form a good basis for protecting and restoring the environmental condition in the lakes. On the other hand, the minimum requirements of the directive concerning purification of urban wastewater are estimated to be insufficient to assure that the environmental quality of the lakes is not reduced.
Map 2.4.7
Phosforous concentrations in European lakes and reservoirs
2.5 Air Pollution
2.5.1 Air Pollution in General
A great number of different substances may cause air pollution. These substances are emitted from many different sources and have different impacts.
Some impacts are local and immediate; others may only appear after many years and perhaps a long distance from the source. Roughly, the sources may be divided into the following categories:
| Means of transport |
| Heating - both separate oil burners and district heating systems |
| Electricity production |
| Combustion of waste |
| Industry |
| Agriculture |
An assessment of the outlets taking place from the various sources only partly reflects the environmental impact from our different activities. Surplus heat from production of electricity is thus often used for heating (combined heat and power plants). Electric trains cause almost no air pollution, but so does the production of the required electricity, etc.
Since air pollution is spread by the wind and deposited both dry and washed out by the rain, there will be no unambiguous connection in a given place between outlet (emission) and the concentration in the surrounding air (immission - cf. explanation on the following page).There is a clear connection between emission and immission when the outlets take place at a low level and in densely populated and heavily trafficked streets, such as for instance pollution from cars. This is due to poor dilution of the emitted pollution. The connection is smaller for instance power plants with a high stack. Of course, a power plant will have impact on the nearby surroundings, but the largest part of the pollution will be carried a long distance away and to a large extent be diluted before it touches the soil and is deposited.
The weather and climate of a given country, as well as the location of the sources, will therefore be of great importance for the relation between pollution outlet and pollution load. In this connection, Denmark takes up a special position. Denmark is divided by great areas of water, which in them provide a "dilution" of the outlets. The biggest cities, and thereby the biggest sources of pollution, are primarily located along the coasts - the majority are even located on the eastern coasts. This - connected with a wind primarily coming from the west - means that a great part of the pollution is blown out of the country. The majority of the Danish emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are in fact exported to other countries. On the other hand, we receive contributions from abroad.
All pollution, which is sent out into the atmosphere, is of course sooner or later deposited again. Denmark therefore "exports" pollution - primarily to the east - i.e. the Baltic region. Furthermore, part of the pollution will be deposited on water areas. A great part of the nitrogen pollution of Danish waters therefore comes through the air.
How far air pollution can be transported depends on the so-called "life-time", which indicates for how long the pollution stays in the air. Typical pollution, such as sulphur and nitrogen compounds - has life times of a few nights and days and can be transported some thousands of kilometres. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and for instance chlorine-flour carbons have life times of several years and can be transported all over the world.
Sulphur Compounds
Sulphur pollution is primarily due to the use of fossil fuels, i.e. carbon, oil and gas products, which contain sulphur. In connection with the incineration, the sulphur also burns and gas sulphur dioxide is formed. Some of the sulphur dioxide is deposited immediately, some is transferred into sulphate after a few days, which deposits on particles, which are thereupon precipitated as "acid precipitation" or deposited as dry particles (cf. explanation).
In urban areas, part of the sulphur pollution that exists in the air comes from sources with a low stack height, typically minor heating plants. Similar contributions come from higher sources, i.e. district heating plants, power plants, etc., whereas the remaining part is due to longdistance transport from abroad.
Nitrogen Compounds
The major part of the air pollution by nitrogen compounds is due to earlier use of fossil fuel, but now the transport sector is the biggest source of pollution together with ammonia emissions from the intensified animal husbandry.
In urban areas, the pollution from car traffic often reaches such levels that it may cause nuisance to exposed parts of the population, for instance asthmatics. Longterm impact can not be excluded either. On a long-term basis, the introduction of catalytic converters for cars will result in an important reduction of urban pollution, unless we will experience a simultaneous increase of the quantity of traffic.
The far-transported nitrogen pollution comes to a huge extent from the power plants. It is possible to reduce this pollution by means of so-called low NOxburners and smoke purification equipment.
In nature areas, the nitrogen pollution contributes to the acidification. Nitrogen compounds (including ammonia) are not only pollution, they are also plant nutrients. This means that the pollution does at the same time have an enriching effect on the soil. This modifies the growth conditions and moves the balance between various plants. This may have the result that nature areas worth preserving, such as heather-clad heath, are transformed into grassheath.
In water areas, this extra supply of nutrients leads to growth of algae, which may result in deoxygenation, which again may result in the death of fish. The nutrients may also come from wastewater and agricultural leaching.
Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
In connection with incineration of fossil fuel and other types of fuel, such as wood and straw, a number of compounds of carbon and oxygen are formed. In case of incomplete incineration, carbon monoxide (CO) is formed, which is a toxic gas. An important source is car traffic, but the introduction of catalyst converters has resulted in a huge reduction of the outlet, because carbon monoxide is transformed into carbon dioxide.
At normal incineration, carbon dioxide (CO-2) is formed, which is a nontoxic compound. However, this compound has some quite different impacts, since it is the most important of the so-called "greenhouse gasses", which cause the "greenhouse effect" (see explanation).
Emission: Emission is the indication of an outlet. This may be an outlet from a stack, a car, or a wastewater pipe. Emission is indicated in the quantity that is led out per unit of time, for in stance kg/hour or ton/year. Immission: Immission is the indication of the presence (concentration) of a given substance in the surroundings. This may be the concentration of a given substance in the air around a fac tory or in the water in a lake. Immission is indicated in quantity per volume, for instance g/m3. Deposition: Deposition is the indication of the quantity of a given substance, which is deposit ed on the ground or in the water. Deposition is indicated in quantity per area, for instance eq/ha or g/m2/day. |
Hydro-carbons
In connection with incomplete combustion of fuel in motors, a large number of hydrocarbons are emitted, of which several are known to be carcinogenic. Furthermore, some compounds are formed which are perhaps not directly hazardous to health, but troublesome because they cause a bad odour or make ones eyes smart. This situation is partly removed by the introduction of catalyst converters in cars. Hydrocarbons are also emitted from various chemical industries and in connection with use of solvents.
Photo-chemical Oxidants, Ozone
When nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds are exposed to sunlight, they may react and form "photo-chemical oxidants", of which the most important one is ozone - a very reactive type of oxygen, which is hazardous to health. The photochemical air pollution has become a problem in many industrialised countries. The limit values for protection of human health and the vegetation are thus often passed during the summer half-year in areas of Europe.
Substances decomposing the Ozone Layer
However, ozone also plays a quite different role in the form of a thin layer at a height of 20-35 km above ground. This ozone, which chemically is identical to the ozone found at the soil surface, is not indispensable. On the one hand because it protects the earth against too strong ultra-violet radiation from the sun, on the other hand because it is of importance for the energy balance of the earth.
There exist a number of substances that decompose the ozone layer. This will among others cause an increased occurrence of skin cancer, because the ultraviolet radiation of the sun more easily can pass a decomposed ozone layer.The ozone layer is decomposed by halons, which have primarily been used in fire extinction equipment, tetra-chloromethane, and 1.1.1. trichloromethane, which has been used as a solvent and for laboratory analyses, HBFCs, which have not been so intensively used in the northern countries, the pesticide of methyde-bromide and the compounds HCFC and CFC, which have to a wide extent been used for production of foam plastic in cooling systems and propellant in spray cans. Besides, CFC is a gas, which contributes to the before mentioned "green-house effect" (see explanation).
Heavy Metals
Even if the major part of the air pollution is emitted as gasses, there is also some pollution, which is emitted as particles, for instance soot or ash particles. Often the air pollution will affect the health of humans, and in this connection it is not so much the particles themselves that are toxic, but rather the substances which settle on their surface. Small particles cause the biggest risk because they more easily settle in the lungs, and because they have a relatively big surface on which toxic substances such as heavy metals may settle. Substances and heavy metals that settle on particles are for instance lead, sulphur, vanadium and nickel. The lead, which is found in the atmosphere primarily, originates from the use of lead-based additives in car petrol. Sulphur, vanadium and nickel to a high extent come from incineration of oil and carbon.
Other examples of heavy metals that are hazardous to health are cadmium and mercury. Cadmium primarily migrates in environment through the use of phosphate fertiliser and by emission from waste incineration and combustion of fossil fuels.
Mercury is among others emitted from waste incineration plants and crematories from tooth fillings made of mercurycontaining materials.
Graph 2.5.1
Emissios of SOx in the Baltic region - 1988,1995.
2.5.2 Air Pollution in the Baltic Region
Air pollution in the Baltic Region originates from sources in the region and from "imported" air pollution.
The most important sources and types of pollution in the Baltic area do not differ from those mentioned above. On the other hand, the sources of pollution differ from one country to the other. For instance, Sweden and Norway do not have any important emission from electricity production, since the large majority of the electricity production in Norway is based on water power, and in Sweden it is based on water power and nuclear power. The increased number of private cars and the volume of lorry transport, as well as the type of industry are also crucial factors to the emission from a country.
As in other industrialised countries, SOx and NOx are the primary substances causing air pollution in the Baltic Region. Therefore, the largest number of measurements and calculations are found for the outlet of these two substances. By means of data from the European Air Pollution Cooperation (EMEP), it is possible to measure the emission of SOx and NOx from the countries of the Baltic Region. The result is shown in the graphs 2.5.1 and 2.5.2. As can be seen, there is a big difference between the quantity led out in Germany, which is the most important emitter of both SOx and NOx, and the quantity led out from Latvia, which emits the smallest quantity of both SOx and NOx. Unfortunately, the newest figures available are from 1995. This is due to the profound but slow data treatment, which is carried out in the individual countries and in the EMEP Organisation itself. It is estimated that figures from 1998 will show the same distribution of outlets between the countries. EMEP is described in Chapter 3.2.5 on the Geneva Convention.
Greenhouse Effect: The Earth is surrounded by a protective atmosphere, which ensures that energy from the sun is maintained, so that the Earth remains warm (this can be compared to a greenhouse). The content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing as a consequence of a rapidly increasing consumption of fossil fuels for heating, transport and production, which has been going on since the beginning of the industrialisation. As a consequence, the ability of the Earth to keep the sun's energy (i.e. warmth) is increased. The result is a higher average tem perature on Earth, modifications of the precipitation conditions, and a general increase of the water level of the seas, because some of the large ice areas of the Earth will melt as a conse quence of the temperature increase. Greenhouse Gas: A greenhouse gas is a gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (55% of the greenhouse ffect). The six greenhouse gas ses are methane (CH4), laughing gas, the three strong industrial gasses HFC, PFC, SF6, and chloride-flour carbons (CFC). |
Graph 2.5.2
Emissions of NOx in the Baltic region -1988,1995..
It appears from the graphs that there has been a reduction of the air pollution in the Baltic area from 1988 to 1995. This is also shown in graph 2.5.3. It appears that the Eastern European countries represent the biggest reduction of the air pollution. Part of this reduction is due to closing-down of industries rather than an efficient effort to reduce the outlets. It is estimated that figures from 1998 will show further reduction of the air pollution.
Graph 2.5.3
Percentage reduction of SOx- og NOx-emissions from the Baltic
region from 1988 to 1995.
Graph 2.5.4
SOx-emissions, 1988, 1995.
As can be seen from graph 2.5.3, there are big varieties in the reduction of NOx from 1998 to 1995. The reduction of NOx emission is low in the northern countries, which can be explained by the increasing traffic load. Contrary to this, the reduction of NOx has been high in the Baltic countries, which is due to the general decrease of industrial production.
In graphs 2.5.4 and 2.5.5, the emissions of SOx and NOx are indicated in annual emission per inhabitant. Hereby, the big varieties between the population numbers of the countries of the Baltic region are taken into account.
Graph 2.5.5
NOx-emissions, 1988, 1995.
Map 2.5.1
Emissions of sulphur in 1995.
It appears from graph 2.5.4 that the SOx emission per inhabitant is biggest in the Eastern European countries. This is primarily due to the fact that the energy production of these countries is based on fuel with a low calorific value and a high sulphur content. Besides, flue-gas purification equipment is only used to a limited extent.
Graph 2.5.5 shows that the NOx outlet per inhabitant is relatively high from the northern countries. The explanation hereof is most probably a relatively high traffic load on land, in the sea and in the air.
Of course, the emissions of SO and NO vary within the borders of the individual countries, depending on the location of the sources. Maps 2.5.1 shows the emission of sulphur per habitant in tons annually in the Baltic region in squares of 50 x 50 km. Not surprisingly, a high emission is seen around the industrial areas and the large cities, especially in the CentralEuropean part of the Baltic Region.
Correspondingly, map 2.5.2 shows the emission of nitrogen (nitrogen oxides and ammonia). It can be seen that the Baltic Region has several areas of nitrogen emissions between 1000 and 5000 tons annually than areas with sulphur emissions between 1000 and 5000 tons annually.
Map 2.5.2
NOx og NH3 emissions in 1995.
2.5.3 Transport of Air Pollution
As earlier described, the spreading of air pollution depends on the meteorological conditions, especially the wind conditions. The Baltic region is characterised by primarily west and southwest winds. This appears from map 2.5.3. The air pollution which comes to the region "from outside" thus primarily comes from Great Britain and Northeast Europe.
Furthermore, an import/export takes place among the countries of the Baltic Region. This import/export depends on the geographic location and meteorological conditions of the country, as well as on the emissions of the country and the neighbour countries.
The below table shows which import and export of air pollution takes place in the Baltic Region.
It appears from Table 2.5.1 that Sweden, Norway, Finland, Latvia, and Belarus are importers of SOx. Sweden and Norway are the biggest importers. These countries have a relatively low emission of SOx, and at the same time they are located in the direction of the wind from the large emission producers (Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, and Ukraine). The large emission producers are also the largest exporters of SOx.
Map 2.5.3
Prevailing wind directions and atmospheric fronts over Europe and the North
Alantic.
Table 2.5.1
Average imports and exports of SOx, from 1988 to 1995. Countries are listed
accoding to decrease in imports.
*: The part of Russia which is included in the EMEP area
Table 2.5.2
Average imports and exports of NOx, from 1988 to 1995. Countries are listed
according to decrease in imports.
*: The part of Russia which is included in the EMEP area
An almost identical picture is shown in Table 2.5.2 for NOx import/export, except for Denmark, which is one of the largest exporters of NOx. This corresponds with Denmark's relatively high emission of NOx, as well as the geographic location and meteorological conditions of the country.
Especially in Sweden, Norway and Finland, the import of sulphur through the air gives problems with acidification of lakes and forests.The effect of the acid precipitation is remarkable in these countries, since the natural content of lime in the soil is very limited. The lime neutralises the acid precipitation and thereby limits the effect. In this connection, Denmark has the advantage of having a large lime content in the soil. More details on the effect of acid precipitation are given later in this chapter.
2.5.4 Immission in the Baltic Region
Map 2.5.4 shows the daily SO2 concentration from January 1987 for the whole of Europe. As can be seen, the highest concentrations are found in Central Europe.
Among the countries in the Baltic Region, especially high concentrations are found in Germany (more than 60 g/m3 SO2). This is due to the high concentration of industries in Germany. For comparison, the EU's limit value for SO2 in the air is 100 g/m3 over a 24-hour period. The other countries in the Baltic Region have three levels, which are less than half of the level in Germany and thus far from the limit value. Since the SO2 emission in the Baltic Region has moreover decreased since 1987, it is estimated that the immission has also decreased and thus has become far lower. In conclusion, SO2 immission does not represent a considerable regional environmental problem in the Baltic region. However, there may be local transgressions of the limit value, especially in connection with unfavourable meteorological conditions such as missing or strongly reduced air circulation.
Map 2.5.4
Daily SO2 concentration field
2.5.5 Deposition in the Baltic Region
Air pollution not only affects health and nature while it exists in the air, but also when it "falls down" or is deposited on the ground, for instance in the form of acid precipitation. The effect of the deposition depends on the area in which this happens. The size of deposition that can be borne by various types of areas has therefore been defined by use of "the critical impact", cf. explanation box. By comparing the critical impact with the actual deposition, it is possible to identify areas in which it is necessary to reduce the deposition in order to avoid acidification damages.
Critical Impact A critical impact has been defined as "the largest deposition of acidifying substances that will not entail a negative long-term impact on the structure and function of the ecosystem". UNECE (UN's Economic Committee for Europe) uses the so-called "5 percentile limit for condi tional critical impact". This means that 5% of the most sensible part of a given area will remain unprotected. Since acidification depends on deposition of both sulphur, nitrogen and ammonia, the quantity of sulphur that can be tolerated by an eco-system will depend on the simultaneous deposition of nitrogen and ammonia, and conversely. If the level of nitrogen deposition is known (for instance from model calculations), a conditional critical limit for sulphur can be estimated. |
Map 2.5.5
Reduction requirements for Sulfur and Nitrogen deposition
Such a comparison has been made by the Co-ordination Centre for Impacts (under the Geneva Convention). The result is shown on map 2.5.5 for 1990 and 2010 (estimate), respectively.
It appears from the map that in Germany, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Poland, it is necessary to reduce the impact from both sulphur and nitrogen. The same applies to areas around the Scandinavian capitals. For the entire Baltic Area (except for the Northern parts of Norway, Sweden, and Finland), a reduction of the nitrogen impact is required. This applies both for 1990 and 2010, which indicates that the means introduced for obtaining a perceptible reduction of the environmental impact from air-borne sulphur and nitrogen have not been sufficient.
2.6 Nuclear Safety
2.6.1 Nuclear sources of pollution in general
Radioactive substances in the environment originate from both natural processes, primarily arisen in connection with the formation of the Earth, and from human activities. The dose impacts originating from the natural background radiation is estimated in total to exceed the radiation contributions that inflicted on the population by human activities. However, accidents in connection with the human activities may cause important dose contributions to limited population groups. The nuclear contributions from activities created by humans, 137Cs (caesium) and 90Sr (strontium) originate from point sources such as nuclear power plants and nonpoint sources such as for instance dumped nuclear waste.
2.6.2 Nuclear Contributions from Human Activities to the Baltic
The Tjernobyl accident in 1986 is clearly the biggest individual source of radioactive contributions, followed by the atmospheric nuclear testings in the 1960'ies. The biggest outlets directly into the water environment originate from the reprocessing plants in Sellafield (UK) and La Hague (F), but the outlet of caesium from these plants has today been reduced to an insignificant level. Within the last year, the outlet of technetium from Sellafield has increased, but the health impact of this is of minor importance compared to the earlier caesium outlets.
Compared to the above-mentioned sources, the contribution of radioactive substances from nuclear plants in the Baltic Region is decreasing. The impact of the dumpings carried out by both Sweden and Russia in the 1960'ies is negligible compared to the above mentioned contributions.
Table 2.6.1 shows the relative contributions of caesium (137Cs) to the Baltic during late years. It appears from the table that it is not reasonable using a narrow limitation of distance concerning the radioactive contributions caused by human beings, because the three most important contributions originate from plants or activities outside the run-off area of the Baltic.
2.6.3 Potential Nuclear Sources in the Baltic, created by Human Beings
Besides nuclear power plants, accidents or carelessness in connection with other nuclear activities may result in pollution by radioactive substances of minor parts of the Baltic area. Among such plants and activities, the following can be mentioned: Atomic-powered ships and satellites, test reactors, transport of radioactive substances, including used reactor fuel, plants for storage and depositing of used reactor fuel and nuclear waste, and plants for extraction of uranium and production of reactor fuel. In the following, a number of potential sources of pollution are mentioned:
Table 2.6.1
Accumulated contribution of Cs137 to the Baltic region from various sources
in the period 1950-1996
Nuclear Power Plants
There exists in Europe approx. 320 nuclear reactors, which are in operation, and in principle, an accident at any of these plants, may, at unfavourable meteorological conditions, result in a perceptible radioactive impact on the region.The risk of a considerable radioactive outlet decreases concurrently with the distance to the nuclear power plant.
In connection with the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, comprehensive safety measures have been taken in order to avoid that by accident, strongly radioactive substances are released from the reactor core and led out into the surroundings. This does not least apply to the western nuclear power plants lying close to the Baltic, i.e. the Swedish, Finnish, and North-German plants, which - besides efficient reactor inclusions that can resist a certain over-pressure as a protection against outlet into the surroundings - are also equipped with filter systems for pressure relief of the reactor inclusion at strong pressure increases. On the contrary, safety is in general bad at the EastEuropean plants, and an environmental threat to the Baltic from nuclear activities is therefore especially connected to these plants. The nuclear power plants around the Baltic, which are included under the bilateral warning and information agreements with Denmark, appear from Table 2.6.2.
Table 2.6.2
Overview of nuclear power plants which are covered by bilateral er omfattet
af bilateral warning and information agreements with Denmark. Source INSC/1/ and the
Danish Agency of Contingency Measures.
Nuclear-powered Ships and Test Reactors
Nuclear-powered ships have, as their power source, a reactor that is in principle functioning in the same way as a nuclear power plant on land. Since the ship reactors are much smaller than reactors in nuclear power plants, the quantities of radioactive substances that can be led out into the air or the water will be correspondingly smaller. The same applies to test reactors, which are typically much smaller than ships reactors.
The problem of nuclear-powered ships is that they can come closer to Denmark's area than even the closest nuclear power plants. However, a preliminary permit is required for sailing in the inner Danish territorial waters or for entering Danish ports by foreign war-ships or civilian nuclear powered ships. However, passing international waters, including the Danish straits, does not require any special permit, neither for nuclear-powered ships nor war-ships having the capacity to carry nuclear weapon.
Nuclear Weapon
As far as we know, accidents caused by nuclear weapon have never led to a nuclear explosion or instance by exposing planes or ships to crash, come into collision or catch fire. These types of accidents have at most caused pollution problems entailing local migration of minor quantities of radioactive substances in cases where the cladding was destroyed in connection with the accident. The pollution is mainly caused by plutonium, which due to its natural radioactive waste emits alpha radiation, which is rich in energy but very short-ranged.
This type of radiation does not entail any risk in connection with external radiation, but if the substance is absorbed in a human body by inhalation or through food, the risk of having cancer later in life is increased.
Nuclear Transports
Transport of radioactive and nuclear material, including used reactor fuel, through Danish territory or on Danish ships requires preliminary notification of the Danish authorities. However, foreign ships have the right to pass Danish external territorial waters, including our international straits, according to the rules of harmless passage. There is no general obligation according to international law for ships to inform whether they have radioactive material onboard. There is a special arrangement between Sweden and Denmark, according to which Danish authorities are kept informed about transports of used reactor fuel from the nuclear power plants of Ringhals and Barsebäck to the intermediary storage for used reactor fuel, the Central Storage for Used Fuel (CLAB) at Oskarshamn by the special ship "SIGYN".
Transport of used reactor fuel takes place in transport containers, which in accordance with IAEA's guidelines give a high degree of safety against outlet of the radioactive substances into the surroundings. Even in case of a serious transport accident, the consequences in the form of health risks caused by radiation will therefore be very limited.
Plants for Treatment of Reactor Fuel and Radioactive Waste
The risk of major accidents in connection with activities related to handling of reactor fuel and radioactive waste in the Baltic Region can in general be considered as very small. In the same way, the risk of environmental damages in the Baltic as a consequence of more remote waste deposits can be regarded as minimal; consequently, the German Gorleben plant can not be characterised as causing environmental harm to the Baltic. The storage of great quantities of used ship reactor fuel etc. in the Murmansk area can not be regarded as a real threat towards the Baltic, even if the storage takes place under totally unacceptable conditions.
There are no plants for processing or final storage of used reactor fuel or hot waste in the region, but the relative pollution contribution from French and English processing plants is not small.Today, the outlets have been considerably reduced compared to earlier. Intermediary storage of used reactor fuel in water basins among others takes place in CLAB (Central Storage for used Fuel) at Oskarshamn in Sweden and at the closed-down nuclear power plant of Greifswald in Germany.
In connection with extraction of uranium, big quantities of residual products from the extraction have been accumulated in the Sillamäe Lake in Estonia.The Sillamäe Lake borders to the Baltic, and a pond has been constructed as a half-circle with departure from the coast. The circle is constructed of earthworks of a height of 25 m, built of earth and clay. The pond contains approx. 7 million m3 wastewater and heavy metals-containing waste, of which 1200 tons are considered radioactive. The contents of the pond are lifted over the sea surface, with the consequence that there is today a considerable pressure related to outlets. Earth walls and the bottom membrane are today considered as insecure and a daily washing-out into the Baltic takes place of 16 to 34 tons of waste. Besides, the level of radon radiation is increased locally in the area, and there is a risk of contamination of the underground.
Satellites with a Nuclear Power Source
Since 1978, a security mechanism has been introduced on nuclear-driven satellites, which in connection with crashes automatically separate the uranium fuel from the reactor. This means that the uranium fuel burns at a great height. Radioactive particles from such incineration of the uranium fuel of the reactor are distributed globally as a small increase of the radioactive substances and the radiation, which already exists in the atmosphere.
The Nuclear Contingency Plan of the Baltic Region
There is no doubt that the Tjernobyl accident has been of very big importance to Europe in the years following the accident. The accident made the Western world aware of the many safety-related and environmental problems associated with Soviet industries and their consumption of resources, including not least the nuclear industry. The following openness at the same time made it possible for the Western world to help. Massive aid programmes were established, among others with a view to remedy the worst safety problems at the nuclear power plants.
For the western nuclear power industry, the Tjernobyl accident did not have major technical consequences. First of all because the safety related problems connected to the Tjernobyl accident were not relevant for the western nuclear power plants. However, we learned from the accident that it was acceptable to have a nuclear contingency plan, also to protect us against accidents at remote plants. Consequently, many countries prepared their nuclear contingency plan simultaneously with an improvement of international cooperation. A new international convention concerning early warning of nuclear accidents came into force six months after the accident.
In Denmark, the former Barsebäck contingency plan, covering the Greater Copenhagen Region, was extended into a national nuclear contingency plan, which was meant to foresee all types of nuclear accidents. On the technical level, the contingency plan was also extended, for instance by the introduction of better measurement systems, including automatic warning systems.
Besides this, Denmark has entered into bilateral warning and information agreements with all nuclear power countries. The natural biotopes on land and in freshwater have in most places in the region today either disappeared or been strongly modified as a consequence of centuries' deforestation, cultivation and drainage of wet areas, regulation of water courses, construction of infrastructure, and pollution. around the Baltic, and with England, whereas warning about accidents at more remote nuclear power plants takes place through the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna (IAEA), which is part of the UN.
2.7 Biodiversity - Nature Conservation
2.7.1 Biodiversity and Nature Conservation in General
The term of "biodiversity" refers to the biological multitude of organisms in all environments on land and in water, and to the ecological interaction that the organisms are part of. The term of biodiversity is included as a central element of the nature conservation work.
2.7.2 Biodiversity in the Baltic Region
Ecologically, the Baltic Region is a rather homogeneous and coherent area, in which fauna and flora have or have had many similarities. The southern land areas in the region are located in the European hardwood forest region, which in Scandinavia and the north-eastern part of the region pass into the boreal coniferous forest belt (the taiga). See map 2.7.1.The Baltic itself is a big brackish water lake, in which the salinity is determined by a mixture of freshwater run-off from land and Atlantic water running in through the Danish straits.
Many types of plants and animals are or have been widely distributed within the entire region, whereas others have had more limited occurrences. Many types of especially birds and fish make annual migrations, where they disappear from the cold, snow and ice-covered areas to the North and East during the winter-half. In a global perspective, for instance compared to areas in the tropes, the Baltic region is not the richest area as far as biodiversity is concerned. Nevertheless, the area is the habitat of many thousand types of plants and animals.
The natural biotopes on land and in freshwater have in most places in the region today either disappeared or been strongly modified as a consequence of centuries' deforestation, cultivation and drainage of wet areas, regulation of water courses, construction of infrastructure, and pollution. The development has been most remarkable in the western part of the region. The coherence between land use and biodiversity is shown in Table 2.7.1.
Today, the wild flora and fauna has in general become poor, especially in the western part of the region. An important reason for this is the comprehensive destruction of natural biotopes and during the last decades the intensified agricultural exploitation and the pollution in general. Besides, non-sustainable hunting and former times' extirpation campaigns towards a number of undesired species - especially some big beasts of prey, birds of prey, seals, etc. - have had the consequence that these have either disappeared or can only found in very small populations or in reservoirs.
The eastern part of the Baltic region is today characterised by the fact that there still are some wide areas in which nature is marked by few or no human intervention. There are great continuous and relatively undisturbed forest and marsh areas, coastal areas without buildings and in general a richer biodiversity than in the western part of the region, among others with occurrence of a number of species which have entirely or partially disappeared from Denmark - for instance bear, lynx, wolf, beaver, otter, white and black stock, etc.
Nature is much better preserved here, among others due to a lower population density and a less intensive use of the areas, which reflects the somewhat slower economic development and the slower act of making everything more efficient during the 20th century. Besides, in all EastEuropean countries up during the 20th century there has been an established tradition and understanding of nature conservation, which in many ways corresponds to how we do in Denmark.
Map 2.7.1
Distribution of major habitats
Table 2.7.1
Survey of physical planning as causes and loads with impact on the
biodiversity in Europe.