Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region
4. Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Area
The co-operation on problems related to trans-boundary pollution between the countries in the Baltic area started simultaneously with the introduction of environment on the global agenda in connection with the UN Conference in Stockholm concerning environmental protection.
1972 was also the year in which the European Communities (the EC) signed the first environmental action plan, which however only became valid for Denmark and Germany, which at the time were the only Baltic countries which were members of the EC.
In the same period the Nordic countries set up Ministries for the Environment, which received questions on environmental protection from the sector ministries. Environmental policies were made and special laws adopted concerning protection of nature and environment. Environmental protection came on the agenda for the Nordic Council of Ministers, where a committee of officials for environmental questions was set up.
A co-operation was established between all of the Baltic countries concerning the common sea environment in the Baltic. Thanks to the Helsinki Convention on the Baltic and the associated HELCOM Commission, a co-operation forum was set up which covered all countries around the Baltic across the former 'iron curtain' between Eastern and Western Europe.
Based on the Tjernobyl accident, a multilateral Conference of Ministers within the IAEA (the International Atomic Energy Association of the UN) was held in September 1986, in which all countries around the Baltic took part. The results of the Conference were the adoption of two Conventions, a Convention on assistance in case of atomic accidents and a Convention on early warning of atomic accidents.
The following year, in 1987, the UN World Commission for Environment and Development published its report (the Brundtland Report), formulating the basic principles for a sustainable development, also within the industrialised part of the World, including that protection of the environment should be an integrated part of the development of the sectors.
After the fall of the wall, the cooperation between the Baltic countries really began. In accordance with the overall principles of sustainable development, environment is included as a theme in many of the new Baltic organisations and international forums, in which the Baltic countries take part.
Co-operation is taking place on national, regional and local level and between the cities. There is co-operation within sectors, where both authorities and private organisations take part, for instance in the tourism sector.
The following includes an overall description of the European environmental cooperation, including all of the plans for its development, Chapter 4.1. Chapter 4.2 includes a description of the Nordic environmental co-operation. Chapters 4.3.1- 4.3.11 include an introduction to the most important forums in the Baltic area with environment on their agenda. The other international environmental co-operation, in which the Baltic countries take part, is described in Chapters 4.4.1-4.4.8.
Except for the EU, the descriptions of the organisations have to the extent possible been built up on available information on:
 | background and purpose, |
| geographic limits and participants, |
| organisation and decision process, |
| fields of activities and important results, |
| financing and resources for environmental purposes, |
| technological and professional cooperation, |
| relations to the EU. |
4.1 Enviromental Co-operation in the EU
Treaty Obligations related to the Environmental Co-operation
The Treaty of Maastricht opened the opportunity to have EU measures within the field of environment adopted by qualified majority as compared to the former unanimity.
The new environmental guidelines of the Treaty of Amsterdam have formed the basis for a co-operation within the EU, in which the environment has higher priority than earlier. The Treaty of Amsterdam is based on a sustainable development as one of the objectives of the Union and the Community. The obligation to include environmental regards has been included when determining the EU politics within the sector fields.
Environmental regard in the inner market has also been strengthened. It is not only the responsibility of the Commission to ensure a high level of protection in propositions for legal instruments, when environment and health are included. Now the European Council and the European Parliament must do their best to ensure the level of protection though their decisions.
Finally, the Treaty of Maastricht provides better opportunities for using the environmental guarantee. The environmental guarantee is valid both in cases in which there is a wish to maintain national rules and in which more strict national rules are desired in a field in which EU rules have been determined.
The EU and International Cooperation
The co-operation within the EU on environmental politics is increasingly directed towards the work in other international forums. The EU countries are carrying out an intensive co-ordination work with global environmental unities and in the different regional connections that all or most EU countries are part of. This is especially the case when discussing subjects for which EU guidelines or an EU policy have been determined.
The globalisation, including the liberalisation of trade and investments, implies a possible risk that environmental guidelines may in some countries be bent by moving investments and production to countries with easier or no rules for environmental conditions. This may cause increased pollution both locally and globally. A joint EU is in many cases a condition for obtaining results at all in major international connections, and the EU plays the role of a green dynamo in the work on the environmental conventions. The Danish Government will work on a strengthening and development of this role.
Revision of the EU's Agricultur al Reform and Structural Fund Reform
The revision of EU's agricultural policy is a challenge with great environmental perspectives. Environmental improvements are planned, among others through a requirement that the member countries shall determine suitable requirements concerning environment and nature, as a precondition for disbursement of direct support. It is possible hereby to obtain accordance between disbursement of direct support and observance of environmental and naturerelated requirements.
The agricultural reform also includes an opportunity to obtain support for sustainable types of operation and afforestation in rural areas.
An additional condition in connection with disbursement of means from the structural fund is that environmental impact assessments are made.
The EU's Negotiations on Exten sions
Besides following up on the Treaty of Amsterdam, the greatest challenge of the EU is the planned accession of new member countries. This extension of the EU both includes opportunities and potential risks for the environmental politics. There are enormous environmental perspectives in an extension of the community, in which everybody observes the existing environmental rules. It will be possible to reduce the air pollution caused by SO2 and NOx by 50% and the emissions of nitrogen and phosphorous into the Baltic can be reduced by 40%.
The Commission's proposal for an extension was presented in the spring of 1997 in the so-called Agenda 2000. Agenda 2000 is the Commission's analysis and estimate as to which modifications of the EU's reforms (structure, agriculture) shall take place before an extension.
At the summit in Luxembourg in December 1997, the European Council decided to initiate the accession and negotiation process with 11 Central and Eastern European countries, including the three Baltic countries and Poland. The European Council also decided to call inter-governmental conferences in the spring of 1998 in order to initiate negotiations with Cyprus, Hungary, Poland, Estonia, Czech Republic, and Slovenia (the 5 + 1 = 5 Eastern European countries and Cyprus).
The Council decided to divide the accession and negotiation process into 4 parts:
- a common framework arrangement,
- a reinforces accession strategy,
- a monitoring procedure,
- accession negotiations
A Common Framework Arrange ment
The framework arrangement means that the accession process is overall taking place within a common framework arrangement for the candidate countries. Within this framework, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs from the 15 EU countries and the 11 candidate countries can call meetings in accordance with their needs. This process was initiated on 30 March 1998 by a meeting with participation of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs from the 15 + 11 countries. The overall objective of the negotiations is membership of the European Union.The negotiations will be concentrated on meeting the requirements of the EU for membership. The overall requirements are the socalled Copenhagen criteria, which are the following:
| The political criteria focusing on the stability of the institutions as a guarantor for democracy and human rights, including the respect for and protection of minorities. |
| The financial criteria, which first of all comprise the existence of a market economy that works, and secondly the capacity to bear the pressure of competition and the market forces in the Union. |
| Fulfilment of the rules of the Community, the so-called Aquis Communautaire. |
Pre-accession Strategy
The purpose of a pre-accession strategy is to bring all of the Central and Eastern European countries into a condition so that they can later become members of the European Union by adapting themselves to the EU legislation to the extent possible before the accession. The strategy is concentrated on accession partnerships and strengthening of the pre-accession assistance based on an analytical examination of the EU legislation in force individually for each accession country.
Accession Partnership
The accession partnership shows which overall requirements that should be met by each accession country in order to obtain membership. This indicates how to prioritise the tasks on short and medium term. Besides financial reform, strengthening of the institutional and administrative capacity, the inner market and legal and internal affairs, environment is one of the fields in which the Council has set explicit objectives. The environmental objective is identical in all partnerships.
The short-term objective is:
Continued taking over framework legislation, preparation of detailed programmes for mutual approximation and initiation of implementing these, as well as implementation of strategies in connection with the individual acts. Planning and implementation of these programmes and strategies.
The medium-term objective is:
Development of supervision and implementation control structures and capacity, continuous planning and implementation of programs for mutual approximation with contact to the individual acts. Special emphasis should be laid on wastewater, solid waste handling, air pollution, integrated industrial pollution control, and hazard control. The environmental protection requirements and the need for a sustainable development must be taken into consideration in connection with the preparation and the implementation of national and sector-specific politics.
It has been underlined in the partnerships that taking over the EU's legislation in force is not in itself sufficient; a reliable and efficient implementation and maintenance of the guidelines is required.
The accession partnerships can first of all be used as a control instrument, whereupon the rules and implementation of the accession countries are considered. Besides, the partnerships are considered to provide a sufficiently detailed overview of the priorities to be followed by distribution of financial means, especially from PHARE and ISPA (see below). The idea is that these means will be connected to the progress of the applicants and their observance of the determined programmes for taking-over EU legislation.
A Control Procedure
The Commission will regularly prepare a report to the Council on the progress that has been made in the individual countries. The reports must among others be followed by recommendations to initiate accession negotiations with other candidate countries, which was what happened in December 1999 when the Commission recommended to the Council (the Ministers of Foreign Affairs) to initiate government conferences with the remaining five accession countries, including Latvia and Lithuania.
Reinforcement of the Accession Support
Calculations made by the Commission show that alone the implementation of EU's environmental rules in all of the candidate countries will cost approx. 135 billion EURO.
The result of the Agenda 2000 negotiations means that in the period 2000-2006 a total of 78 billion EURO has been set aside as support to the accession countries. Hereof the pre-accession support represents more than 22 billion EURO.
The pre-accession support will represent 3.12 billion EURO in each of the years 2000-2006. The support will be provided through three instruments, which all have the objective of reinforcing the preparations of the accession countries, but not exclusively within environmental support.
More than half of the pre-accession support corresponding to 1.56 billion EURO annually will be provided through the PHARE programme. The programme among others has the objective of reinforcing the ability of the accession countries to maintain their legislation. Environmental projects can be provided to the extent, that they are given priority by the national PHARE programmes of the countries. Compared to the support, which is today provided through the PHARE programme, more than a doubling of the preaccession support has been assured.
Projects within environment and transport will be provided support through the ISPA arrangement, which is a structural fond instrument. 1.04 billion EURO has been set aside annually. The plan is to use 50% on environment and 50% on transport. Agricultural development and agricultural districts will be provided 520 million annually in support through a special agricultural instrument.
As regards the support to new member countries, a so-called development reserve has been created of totally 56 billion EURO in the period 2002-2006. The annual amount available for new member countries is increasing throughout the period (from 4.1 billion EURO in the year 2002 to 14.4 billion EURO in the year 2006). The possibility for new accession countries of profiting from the development reserve depends on the needs of the country in question and its ability to use the support efficiently (the absorption capacity). If for instance only one country becomes a member in 2002, it is not to be expected that this country will automatically have access to the 4.1 billion EURO representing the budget for 2002. This will depend on the absorption capacity of the country.
The Accession Negotiations
In the spring of 1999, the Commission finalised a screening and analytical assessment of the 5 + 1 accession countries' ability and willingness to fulfilling the aquis communautaire for each directive. The accession countries thereupon sent in negotiation position papers for the environmental aquis.
| In the autumn of 1999, the EU countries have been negotiating the EU's common position as to opening the negotiations concerning the environmental aquis. |
The common attitude of the EU is basically progressive and constructive. Further information, clarifications, and profound investigations are primarily required in order to make sure that the conditions for accession are as reliable and realistic as possible.
The task has first of all been to emphasise some conditions and criteria for interim arrangements and thereupon define in which fields the accession countries must 'improve their home work'. In this way, the mandate of the EU deliberately does not consider any interim arrangements in the meaning of number of years.
On this basis, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs could in December 1999 open the negotiations on the environmental chapter. The Ministers of Foreign Affairs simultaneously decided to initiate government conferences with the other five accession countries and Malta (Latvia and Lithuania as well as Bulgaria, Romania, and the Slovak Republic).
4.2 The Nordic Environmental Co-operation
Background and Objectives
The official Nordic co-operation takes place within the framework of the socalled Helsinki Agreement of 1962 with later modifications, especially the modifications made in 1972, where the Nordic Council of Ministers was set up and 1974, when the agreement was supplemented by three articles on environmental co-operation. It is indicated in the contractual basis that 'the contracting parties shall do their utmost to maintain and further develop the co-operation between the countries within the legal, cultural, social and economic fields, and concerning matters related to inter-communication and environmental protection. The contracting parties should consult each other in questions of common interest, which are taken into consideration in European and other international organisations and conferences'Further, the agreement specify, that
| In connection with preparation and implementation of national laws, the contracting parties must to the extent possible place the environmental protection interests of the other contracting parties on equal footing with their own. |
| The contracting parties shall try to obtain harmonisation of their environmental protection rules with a view to obtain the greatest possible accordance as far as norms and guidelines for discharge and pollution are concerned, as well the use of environmental poisons and other environmental disturbances. |
| The contracting parties shall also seek to obtain harmonisation concerning selection of natural protection and outdoor areas, as well as preservation and other measures for protection of flora and fauna. |
Geographic Limits and Participants
The Helsinki agreement on Nordic cooperation was entered by Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Through modifications of the agreement in 1983, the self-governing areas - Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Åland - have obtained an independent status also within the Nordic co-operation, within the framework of the Danish and the Finish delegation, respectively.
Organisation and Decision Process
The Nordic co-operation apparatus comprises the Nordic Council, which was set up in 1952, and which is now a cooperation organ for parliamentarians, and the Nordic Council of Ministers, which is the co-operation organ of the governments. The Council of Ministers meets either as the Ministers for Nordic co-operation, or as a professional council of ministers within practically all ministerial fields. The ministers of co-operation are the Nordic budgetary ministers, and they take into consideration a number of transverse matters.
However, the ministers for cooperation are not a superior council of ministers with actual co-ordination powers within the individual ministerial fields. Here it is the individual professional councils of ministers that decide. Also the Nordic Prime ministers and ministers of foreign affairs meet, but formally not as councils of ministers.
The Council of Ministers takes its decision unanimously. In practice, decisions may be made within the field of environment, with one of the countries reserving its position. In such a case, the other countries make the decision for themselves.The decisions are binding for the participating countries, but they may include reservations concerning later approval or ratification. The Council of Ministers has committees of officials to prepare their meetings and decisions. The committees of officials typically set down a number of working groups and/ or project groups to prepare bases of decision within specific fields. The officials committee for environment thus has five permanent working groups and a number of cross-sectorial controls and working groups have been formed with mandates, which have been approved by the committees of officials.
The Council of Ministers may bring up any question for discussion and decision. The Council of Ministers will also be guided by the Nordic Council, which adopts recommendations to the Council of Ministers or the national governments. The Nordic Council also receives reports from the Council of Ministers, statements concerning the work of the Council of Ministers including earlier recommendations, and proposals from the Council of Ministers for common Nordic measures. There is thus an ongoing political dialogue between the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers within practically all fields of the society.
Nordic Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities
During late years, the Nordic cooperation has undergone essential adjustments based on the political changes in Europe and in the countries' membership of or connection to the EU.
Principles and overall objectives for the environmental co-operation in the Nordic Countries were adopted by the Nordic Council of Ministers, the ministers of the environment, in the report enEnvironmental Co-operation in the Baltic Regiond 'The future environmental co-operation within the Nordic Council of Ministers', September 1992.
In the report entiteled 'Nordic co-operation in new times', February 1995, which was prepared by the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, changes are foreseen in both the political and professional approach to the Nordic cooperation. The report underline the importance of using the principle of 'Nordic usefulness' in the future co-operation, and underlines the field of environment as one of the professional fields in which the efforts should be concentrated.
The report states that the environmental co-operation shall be concentrated on common Nordic environmental questions and questions that the Nordic countries wish to present in the European and other international organs. The stepwise integration of environmental regards in other sectors should be continued. The localities of the Nordic countries and the Arctic regions are also underlined, including specifically responsible use of natural resources and regard to the unique environment.
In 1995, the Nordic Council approved the Ministers of Co-operation's proposal for co-operation within the Arctic regions.
The Nordic environmental co-operation is based on the principle of 'the highest adapted level of ambition'. This means that by following the Nordic country having the highest level of ambition, the Nordic environmental co-operation is used as a lever both nationally and internationally. The intention is also to obtain international penetration for Nordic nature and environment politics, especially in relation to the EU.
The Nordic environmental co-operation is also based on the general principles for natural and environmental protection, which are acknowledged both on national and international level, such as sustainable development, environmentally adapted development of the society with a view to prevent environmental problems, sectorial responsibility, the principle of circulation, the principle of the polluter pays, as well as the principle of precaution.
The newest environmental strategy is the Nordic environmental strategy 2000- 2005. The strategy gives a total overview of the guidelines for the Nordic cooperation up to the year 2005.
The Nordic environmental strategy was revised based on the principle of sustainable development and sectorial integration of environmental regards. It will thereupon form the basis for the efforts in the Nordic co-operation within the field of nature and environment.
The Nordic co-operation is partly conducted in the form of projects, partly as co-ordination between the efforts of the Nordic authorities nationally and within the EU and other international organs of co-operation or conventions. The cooperation has during late years increasingly been characterised by the international cooperation. The co-operation in relation to the EU and the cross-boundary pollution problems within the fields of air, water, and biodiversity are therefore given high priority.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The Nordic co-operation budget is approx. 700 million DKK (2000). Hereof, approx. 40 million DKK is used for environmental purposes (2000).
Technologies and Scientific Co operation
The environmental co-operation in the permanent working groups under the Officials Committee for environmental questions (EK-M) and the co-operation in the cross-sectorial working groups are widely of a professional-technical character.
Through seminars and the projects that are initiated within these forums, actual problems are examined and elucidated.
The work within working and project groups build up a Nordic network, which is used in the professional development work and the political preparatory work in the Nordic administrations. The results and the clarifications and decisions that are made in this connection are used both nationally and internationally. Especially in relation to the EU, the Nordic efforts within the respective professional fields can be used for furthering the requirements of a reinforced environmental control.
Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes
The Nordic Council of Ministers sets aside funds for support to the localities. The funds are used for concrete projects concerning environmental improvements, including projects on nuclear safety, building up of knowledge through environmental research and environmental information and for building up of competence within public administration and the industry.
The Nordic Environmental Finance Committee (NEFCO) and the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) are parts of the Nordic environmental co-operation. The NIB lies within the responsibility of the Ministers of Co-operation, and a fund has been set up under the NIB concerning financial support for environmental purposes (MIL). NEFCO and NIB provide especially soft environmental loans to Eastern Europe, the Baltic Area and the Barents Region. The activities are assessed concerning environmental risks and are co-ordinated in relation to the bilateral efforts within the area, with a view to strengthening the development and the environment in the recipient countries.
Relevance for the Baltic Region
Within the Nordic co-operation, special focus has been on the localities of the Nordic countries, i.e. the Baltic Region, the Barents region, and the Arctic region during late years. This is one of the above mentioned Nordic 'columns' of cooperation.
An extended co-operation is considered an important contribution to stability and democracy in the region. In 1996, the Ministers of co-operation agreed upon a number of objectives concerning the local work of the Council of Ministers. The parliamentarians of the Nordic Council have formed a locality' committee, which has among others prepared a number of recommendations for the area to the governments.
The environmental co-operation includes measures in relation to the Baltic region over a broad front. The Nordic environmental strategy 1996-2000 includes as a guideline that 'support for solving the environmental problems in the localities of the Nordic countries is given high priority within the Nordic environmental cooperation. The efforts must take place both through political influence and decisions in the Nordic countries and internationally, and through concrete contributions to implementation of projects improving the environment, including projects on nuclear safety and with due regard to the bilateral East-West co-operation within this field. Building up knowledge in the localities of the Nordic countries through environmental research and environmental information should be supported, including the efforts for protection of the biological multiplicity. It is also important to assist the public administration and the industries with building up competence.
The working groups under EM-K and several of the cross-sectorial control groups, etc. have financed and implemented a number of environmental projects concerning the guidelines of the environmental strategy.
In conclusion can be said that the Nordic co-operation is highly of relevance for the Baltic region.
Sources
Danish Environmental protection Agency
The Danish Forest and Natural Protection Agency
'The Nordic Environmental Strategy 1996-2000', published by the Nordic Council of Ministers,TemaNord 1996:532.
'Nordic Co-operation in new times', a report published by the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, February 1995.
www.norden.org
Addresses
The Secretariat of the Nordic Council of Ministers,
Store Strandstræde 18,
1255 Copenhagen K,
tel.: +45 33 96 02 00
fax: +45 33 96 02 02
4.3 Political Co-operation and Initiatives in the Baltic Region
The work of the UN on sustainable development has left profound traces in the Baltic region, where the prime ministers in 1996 decided that the region should have an agenda 21 with visions and action plans for sustainable development in sectors that are important for the financial development but at the same time problematic for the environment. In accordance with these criteria, the industrial, energy, forestry, agricultural, fishing, transport, and tourism sectors were selected as responsible for the preparation and implementation of vision and action plan. Meetings are held regularly among the sector ministers of the Baltic countries, at which meetings environmental questions are also discussed. A further description of these meetings of the ministers is not part of this study.
Some of the other forums of cooperation described in the following have first and foremost been established with a view to establish a general co-operation with the new countries concerning the development of the region, including sustainable financial, social, and environmental development. Co-operation relations have been established on country and municipality level and between the county councils. Cooperation is established between all countries of the Baltic region and between a minor number of countries, for instance Sweden and Denmark in the Sound Committee.
The Baltic Environmental Forum and the Sound Committee are examples of cooperation between environmental authorities within a minor area of the Baltic region. These are only meant to be examples since this clarification, as mentioned in the introduction, has been limited to cooperation forums of relevance for the Danish environmental efforts in the region.
On sector level, the tourism industry has established a forum for development of the tourism of the region, with a mixture of private and public participation and with environmental issues as an integrated part of the work.
The work carried out within these forums is supported by VASAB, which is a cooperation on coherent physical planning in the region, which also integrates environmental issues.
The worst sources of pollution of the Baltic are named hot spots. The Prime ministers of the region have taken the initiative to establish a programme that is meant to help eliminating these hot spots. The programme named the Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme (JCP) supports the implementation of HELCOM's recommendations. The HELCOM programme Implementation Task Force (PITF) implements the programme.
In order to reduce the pollution originating from the new countries and recognising that these do not have as wide a tradition for environmental regulation and administration as the 'old' countries have, centres for environmental administration and technology have been established in a number of towns in the new countries.
4.3.1 Baltic Agenda 21 (1998)
Background and Objectives
The purpose of the Baltic Agenda 21 (an Agenda for the Baltic Region) is to further a regional co-operation with a view to improve the living and working conditions of the population within the framework of sustainable development and environmental protection. The Baltic Agenda 21 complements the national and local agenda 21 and the work carried out under for instance HELCOM (the Helsinki Convention) and VASAB (Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010, i.e. physical planning in the region). The Baltic Agenda 21 also includes relevant EU aspects.
The initiative for preparing a Baltic Agenda 21 was taken by the prime ministers of the Baltic countries at the meeting in Visby in May 1996 and by the ministers of foreign affairs in June in Kalmar.
At a meeting held in Saltsjöbaden in October 1996, the ministers of the environment adopted a declaration, named the 'Saltsjöbaden Declaration', determining the guidelines for the continued work on the Baltic Agenda 21.
The ministers of foreign affairs approved the Baltic Agenda 21 at a meeting in CBSS (the Council of the Baltic Sea States) on 23 June 1998 in Nyborg, Denmark.
Geographic Limits and Partici pants
A very wide circle of people is participating in the work on the Baltic Agenda 21. Besides the countries having coastal lines towards the Baltic, Norway, Iceland and the EU participate. Hereto come VASAB, HELCOM, International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission (IBSFC), the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Baltic Tourism Commission (BTC), the Centre for Natural Resources and Environmental Research, Coalition Clean Baltic (CCB), Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), European Union for Coastal Conservation (EUCC), International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), International Network for Environmental Management (INEM), the Baltic Working Group for Baltic Fishermen, WWF International-Baltic Programme, union of Baltic Cities (UBC), World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and the international financing institutes, the Work Bank (IBRD), The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the European Investment Bank (EIB), the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB), and the Nordic Environmental Financing Corporation (NEFCO).
Organisational Structure and Decision Process
The control group of the process, the Senior Officials Group, both comprises government and EU representatives, representatives for international cooperation organisations such as HELCOM and VASAB, NGOs from relevant interest organisations and the international financing institutes. All representatives participate on equal terms. The Senior Officials Group, SOG, holds a couple of meetings annually. The countries have the chairmanship in turns. A bureau comprising 4 persons from SOG assists the chairmanship. Also a secretariat is connected to the process.
SOG has the overall responsibility for coordination of the further process, including reporting to the sector minister and the minister of environment every 2-3 years and to the Prime ministers every 5 years.
The Baltic Agenda 21 is meant to further sector-integrated environmental efforts in the Baltic region. Therefore 7 sectors of crucial economic and environmental importance participate: agriculture, industry, energy, forestry, fishing, traffic and tourism. The work is taking place according to the lead-party system, so that two countries/ organisations together have the chairmanship for each individual sector. The sectors themselves are responsible for the implementation of Baltic Agenda 21 within their sector.
Environmental Policies and Fields of Activities
Each sector has prepared a report including the objectives, scenario for a sustainable development and an action plan for the sector.The sector reports have formed the basis for the preparation of the final document on Baltic Agenda 21.
One of the important results of Baltic 21 is the action programme, comprising 30 different fields of activities, which are meant to further sustainable development in the Baltic area. It is based on selected proposals from the 7 sectors and on Visions and Strategies Around the Baltic Sea 2010 (VASAB 2010). The programme consists of three parts: common efforts, which concern more than one sector, selected sector efforts, which concern sectorspecific questions, and efforts concerning physical planning.
1. Common Efforts:
| Increased production and use of bioenergy and other renewable energy |
| Use of regional forums and networks for sustainable development |
| Establishment of demonstration areas and pilot projects for demonstration of sustainable development in practise |
| Questions related to urban cooperation and sustainable development in towns and societies |
| Provision of technologies for furthering sustainable development |
| Information on sustainable development |
| Ameliorate the consumers' knowledge on sustainable development |
2. Sector Efforts:
The Agricultural Sector
| Training and education |
| Development of a 'Virtual Research Institute' for sustainable agriculture based on the already existing NOVABOVA in the Baltic Area |
| Preparation and execution of agroenvironmental legislation and policies |
The Energy Sector
| Strengthening of the co-operation between authorities |
| Increased use of renewable energy and furthering of energy efficiency and energy savings |
| Co-operation on research and development |
The Fishing Sector
| Development of long-term strategies for the most important fish stocks: Cod, Salmon, haring and sprat |
| Reestablishment of resorts, which is important for fish and fishing in the inner waters |
| Create a sustainable aquaculture |
The Forest Sector
| Furthering of sustainable forestry and efficiency in private forestry within the Baltic region through: Existing organisational structures or networks of forest owners and forest tenants, exchange of information on ways and means for consulting services between organisations and authorities providing consulting services to forest owners and users. |
| Analysis of preserved forest areas. |
| Further the use of wood and woodbased products as a natural, longlasting resource and environmentally sound material, and modification of the consumption patterns in a more sustainable direction. |
The Industrial Sector
| Improvement of the framework for industries through development of financial incentives ameliorating environment administration in industry; harmonisation of the industrial legislation within the fields of state support, competition, trade and environmental policies (including working environment and working safety) without reducing the present international environmental norms; implementation of international conventions and agreements of importance for a sustainable development within the Baltic area. |
| Implementation of eco-efficiency in industry in the following respects: Development of eco-efficient means for the different trades; implementation of environmental management systems; inclusion of environmental factors in all kinds of activities and reporting, especially encouraging voluntary initiatives as far as industries' financial reporting is concerned; furthering of pilot projects aiming at a sustainable development. |
| Extended and improved cooperation on research and development and transfer of know-how and technology within the Baltic area. |
The Tourism Sector
| Maintain legislation concerning sustainable development and tourism, for instance coastal zone and HELCOM recommendations, physical planning and use of the areas. |
| Environmental management systems and development of control methods within the field of tourism. |
The Transport Sector
| Implement a project concerning development of guidelines, criteria and recommendations for infrastructure investments in a sustainable transport system. |
| Provide and strengthen the cooperation between governments with regard to initiatives ensuring more rational transport of goods, especially by improving the railway and ships connections. |
| Development of regional strategies supporting sustainable sea transport. |
3. Efforts related to physical planning:
| Implementation of the Stockholm Declaration on a policy for sustainable development of physical planning. |
| Continued development of the integrated management of coastal areas. |
| Incorporate Baltic 21 in the European documents related to physical planning. |
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The Baltic Agenda 21 process does not have its own budget. Since the sectors have individual responsibility for the implementation, it is also up to the sectors to provide the required financing of the activities.
Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes
No support programmes have been established as part of Baltic Agenda 21. But the implementation in the former Eastern countries is supported by donors and financing institutes.
Under the Nordic Council of Ministers for Environment, 2 million DKK have been set aside for the process in 2000.
The financing institutes have taken active part in the process. The five International Financing Institutes (IFI) which have participated are The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the European Investment Bank (EIB), the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB), the Nordic Environment Finance Corporation (NEDCO), and the World Bank. Based on their respective mandates, the international financing institutes play an important part as a catalyst for the co-operation to support the objectives of the Baltic Agenda 21 through their relations to the governments, which have taken part in the cooperation. The various financing arrangements that are found within the EU, for instance the Life and Phare programmes (and the new arrangements that will be developed hereunder), Interreg IIA and IIC and Tacis also represent important financing opportunities for various parts of the action programme of Baltic 21.
Sources
'An Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region', Baltic 21 Series No. 1/98.
Baltic 21 website http://www.ee/baltic21
Address
The address of the secretariat is:
Baltic 21 Secretariat
Strömsborg
PO.Box 2010 S-103 33 Stockholm
Sweden
Tel.: +46 8 440 19 38/41
Fax: +46 8 411 72 84
4.3.2 Baltic Environmental Forum (1995)
Purpose and Origin
The purpose is to strengthen the environmental co-operation between the three Baltic countries, i.e. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania on the administrative level. This includes environmental issues of regional interest, capacity building and legal approximation to environmental standards within the EU. The activities started in June 1995 and are so far agreed to continue until August 2003.
Geographic Limits and Partici pants
Participants of the Baltic Environment Forum are Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
Organisation and Decision process
The ministries of the environment of the three countries are the primary participants. Emphasis is laid on strengthening middle managers and administrative staff in the ministries of the three countries, not only at ministerial level. A control group has been established, the participants of which is the ministers of environment in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, the EU Commission (DG XI), ministers of the environment from Germany, Sweden, and Finland, and the Latvian Environmental Protection Fund. The permanent staff comprises an environmental expert from the three participating countries and employees of a secretariat.
Fields of Activities
The fields of activities are harmonisation and strengthening of the environmental administration in the three countries, and approximation of the national legislation to EU standards with a view to accession to the EU. Besides, it functions as mutual environmental information centre towards the EU and other organisations.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The participants of the control group finance the activities, and the budget for phase 2 (two years) is 534,500 EURO.
Technological and Scientific Cooperation
Seminars, meetings, and workshops are arranged with the purpose of strengthening the communication, the exchange of information, and the co-operation within environmental protection between the three countries. This is assured through the participation of experts, NGOs, and the public.
Relations to the EU
DG XI participates in the control group and contributes to the financing.
Sources
Home page: www.bef.lv
Address
Baltic Environment Forum
Peldu 26/28 Room 505
Riga, Latvia
LV1050
E-mail: bef@latnet.lv
4.3.3 Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Co-operation (BSSSC) (1993)
Purpose and Origin
The Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Cooperation (BSSSC) was established in 1993 in Stavanger on Norwegian initiative.
The purpose of this is a continuous amelioration of the conditions of life and an economically sustainable development in the region. The means is new contacts and cooperation between authorities, institutions, and industry on a regional level and an extension of the existing regional bilateral and multi-lateral cooperation.
Geographic Limits and Partici pants
Members are regional authorities from Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, and Denmark.
Organisation and Decision process
The member countries have the presidency in turn, at intervals of two years. The presidency is supported by a secretariat, which geographically follows the presidency. A conference is held annually, at which the activities are reported and the following year's working programme adopted.
Fields of Activities
The fields of activities of BSSSC cover support to new local and regional administrative and democratic institutions, exchange of information and know-how in connection with financial and technical matters, humanitarian and health related matters, environmental protection and energy, culture, education, sports, tourism, transport, and communication.
Three permanent working groups have been established, which are working with institutional development and human relations, financial development and co-operation, as well as nature and environmental protection. The working groups function as 'think tanks', panels of experts, and as regional discussion partners in connection with national or international questions.
The BSSSC functions as a platform for starting up projects between the regions. Within the field of environment, the BSSSC has identified a number of problems in connection with environmental protection, and among others projects have been initiated related to development of local Agenda 21 in a number of municipalities in the Baltic Region.
Financing and Resources for En vironmental Purposes
The financing of projects initiated by the BSSSC is most often done through national funds, but EU programmes also support the projects. The most important EU financial support programmes are Phare, including Baltic Small project Facility (BSPF), and Tacis, Interreg and EcosOverture.
Technological and Scientific Co operation
The BSSSC has formed an ad-hoc working group related to the information society.The task of the working group is to establish a partner-search facility at the Internet.
Relations to the EU
The BSSSC has a close co-operation with the EU Commission (DG I and DG XVI), which is also represented at the annual meetings of the organisation.
Sources
Internet Homepage: www.bsssc.com
Address
BSSSC Secretariat
Ul.Okopowa 21/27
PL 80-810 Gdansk
Tel: +48 58 307 72 82
Fax: +48 58 307 74 38
E-mail: bsssc@bsssc.com
4.3.4 Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC) (1983)
Purpose and Origin
The Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC) has approx. 150 members and is open to everybody, private persons as well as public institutions that are willing to accept the conditions and agree to the objectives of the organisation. Among others through brochures and the Internet, the Commission is presented as a service for the tourism industry in the ten countries surrounding the Baltic Sea. Information about and reference to the tourism industry in the individual countries and the BTC function as an information centre for interested parties outside the region.The Chamber of Commerce in Lübeck founded the BTC in 1983.
Geographic Limits and Partici pants
The member countries are Germany, Poland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway including associated partners around the world who are interested in marketing the Baltic area as a travel destination.
Organisation and Decision Process
The BTC has no real organisational framework and is not a real international organisation. The Baltic Sea Council functions as an umbrella organisation for a number of minor regional actors, among others the BTC.
Fields of Activities
The objective of the BTC is to promote a natural and sustainable development of travel activities and tourism in the Baltic area. This can be done by creating interest for the potential of the region as a tourist attraction, by making data and information available, establish a network and business opportunities for actors at annual fairs and by establishing connection to public sources and organisations.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
BTC tries to create contact to EU financial support arrangements or other organisations for financing of analyses and investigations.
Technological and Scientific Cooperation
BTC was one of the main actors in the development of the partial report on tourism in Baltic Agenda 21. At the annual fair, experts within the tourism industry present contributions and analyses. BTC seeks to inform and influence tourism activities in the region.
Sources
The Danish Tourism Council
Home page: www.balticsea.com
Address
Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC)
Nya Rådstugugatan 3
S-6024 Norrköping
Sweden
Tel.: +46 11 123 580
Fax: +46 11 103 103
E-mail: info@btc.se
4.3.5 Environmental Centres for Administration and Technology (ECAT) (1993)
Background and Objectives
The overall purpose of the ECAT Centres is to reduce the pollution of the Baltic. ECAT is thus functioning as a support organisation for HELCOM.
The initiative to establish the Environmental Centre for Administration and Technology (ECAT) was taken by Hamburg and Bremen, Aalborg and Aarhus, as well as Sweden/Finland in order to provide financial support to cities and regions in the eastern and south-eastern Baltic regions within the field of environment. The first centre was established in 1993 in Riga.
Geographic Limits and Partici pants
ECAT comprises a great number of members from the eastern and western Baltic countries. Their educational background varies very much, since they both include economists, research workers within natural sciences, lawyers, and engineers just to mention some of the most represented categories.
Organisation and Decision Process
In the years 1993-1996, the following ECAT centres have been established: Latvia (ECAT/ECMC-Riga), Lithuania (ECAT-Lithuania), Russia (ECAT-St. Petersborg and (ECAT-Kaliningrad) and in Albania (ECATTirana).
Fields of Activities
The objective of making knowledge available within the fields of administration, politics, and industry is to hand over knowhow locally, make the environmental problems visible and help finding a solution. Each ECAT centre team comprises a West-European expert and local environmental specialists within different environmental disciplines. Emphasis is laid on solving the environmental problems both administratively and politically.
ECAT is thus working on efficiency within the fields of administration and legislation, and at the same time the centres help the industrial sectors reduce the effluent into the environment. Furthermore, one of the objectives is to increase the consciousness and the level of information of the population as far as environmental measures are concerned.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The individual members make financial contributions to the financing of ECAT. Besides, the organisation receives funds from the European Commission, EU, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), and from towns in Germany, Denmark, and France.
Relations to the EU
The EU has given financial support to the establishment of ECAT.
Sources
ECAT Newsletter and annual reports
4.3.6 The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme (JCP) and the HELCOM Programme Implementation Task Force (PITF) (1992)
Background and Objectives
After the breakdown of the communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe, it became clear that a strong pollution had taken place and that the impact on environment and nature in certain areas was very critical. On the other hand, there also exist a number of nature areas which are much less contaminated and in general much more untouched than in most places in Western Europe.
At an environmental conference in Ronneby in Sweden in 1990, the Prime Ministers of the Baltic Sea region and invited representatives from the international financing institutes (IFI) as well as observers from NGOs formulated a 'common vision' about a framework programme for environmental activities in the entire runoff area of the Baltic.The programme named 'The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme' (JCP) was finally adopted in 1992 and was slightly revised in 1998.
An important element of JCP is the elimination of point sources and the socalled hot spots, which upon an immediate assessment represent an important impact on the Baltic area.
JPC represents a formal and practical basis for the co-operation between the countries of the region as well as IFIs, research organisations, professional organisations, NGOs etc., who have a direct or indirect responsibility for the realisation of the objectives in the Helsinki Convention about the Baltic Sea, cf. Chapter 4.2.1.
The fact that JCP was created as a result of a Prime Ministers' meeting has ensured JCP and the associated environmental activities a safe political platform in the entire Baltic Sea. PITF plays a unique role in HELCOM and the Baltic Sea cooperation in general, since this is the only official forum including the European Union and all countries in the Baltic area and which at the same time includes official cooperation with IFIs and NGOs. The vision of JCP has today been supplemented by the 'Environment for Europe' process, which has special focus on policies, legislation, regulation and institutional development with a view to adaptation to the EU system.
Geographic Limits and Participants
JCP comprises the entire run-off area of the Baltic Sea, cf. the survey on map 2.2.1.1.
The parties of HELCOM:
Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, The European Union, and Denmark.
Other co-operating governments:
Ukraine, Belarus, Slovakia, Czeck Republic, and Norway.
Other Participants
Regional Inter-governmental Organisations:
International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission (ISFC) [ICES]
International Financing Institutes (IFIs):
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
European Investment Bank (EIB)
Nordic Investment Bank (NIB)
Nordic Environment Finance Cooperation (NEFCO)
World Bank Group
Organisations (NGOs etc.):
Coalition Clean Baltic (CCB)
Conference of Rectors of European Universities (CRE)
European Union for Coastal Conservation (EUCC)
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI)
International Network for Environment Management (INEM)
Union of Baltic Cities (UBC)
World Wildlife Foundation (WWF)
Organisation and Decision Process
An essential part of the countries involved in JCP are at the same time 'contracting parties' in the Helsinki Convention (HELCOM). Therefore, in 1992 the parties requested HELCOM as an organisation to be in charge of the secretarial coordination and facilitation of the JCP process. This has in practise been done through the foundation of a special independent task force - the HELCOM Program Implementation Task Force (HELCOM PITF) - with representatives from all parties involved in JCP and its own chairman selected by the parties. PITF has its own secretary connected to the organisation, who is a member of HELCOM's staff in Helsinki.
Decisions in PITF are made by consensus of all parties, both national and others. The final implementation of the efforts is done upon decision on a national level and is a national responsibility.
Fields of Activities
JPC has made a list of 132 primary point sources of pollution - hot spots.These are primarily point sources, which represent good opportunities for quick and efficient measures against the pollution compared to the investment. The list includes industries, major urban wastewater treatment plants, waste deposits, solid waste handling, and agriculture. Some of the pollution sources no longer have the character of primary point sources, either because the production has ended or been much reduced, or due to measures taken against the impact of contaminating substances from the plant.
Of the 132 primary point sources, 50 originated from industries. Also some industrial effluent from the 65 major treatment plants had been included, since they typically have a great number of industries connected. There were 16 primary point sources, but also non-point sources on the list within the agricultural sector.
The measures taken against the pollution from treatment plants have been more intense than the efforts to reduce the impact from industries. Of the 65 major urban wastewater treatment plants, which were originally included in HELCOM's list of point sources, extensions and improvements are ongoing on 30 of these, and three have been excluded from the list as a result of the measures. In connection with agriculture, HELCOM recommends that there is special focus on storage and spreading of manure in order to reduce volatilisation and leaching of nitrogen.
JPC consists of six complementary elements:
- policies, legislation and regulation,
- institutional development and posteducational training,
- investment in actual activities, treatment of pollution from point sources and from non-point sources,
- management plans for wetlands,
- necessary use-oriented research,
- environmental consciousness and environmental information.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The financing of PITF's secretariat is part of the total financing of HELCOM.
The financing of the necessary environmental activities in the countries under JCP will
essentially be a national concern. The countries, which have given priority to and
incorporated environmental investments in their national budgeting, are therefore also the
countries that can demonstrate the highest activity within the fields of activities of
JCP.
However, the national efforts are, especially for the countries in transition, facilitated by various types of international financing and support. Hereto come various types of direct support. The EU has used several of its support programmes (Phare, Tacis, Interreg and Life) to further the harmonisation to the EU and at the same time they have promoted the JCP's fields of activities.
Technological and Scientific Cooperation
PITF has independently and in cooperation with HELCOM a number of ongoing activities. The most important ones of these are the annual status reports, concerning discharges from and investments in hot spots, published as 'Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings'. Besides, within all of the fields of activities, there are working groups managed by 'lead parties', which currently follow the development within the field and which upon acceptance from PITF can start up various investigation work and the like.
Sources
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
HELCOM, 1998. Recommendations for Updating and Strengthening
Balt. Sea Environ. proc. No. 72
2.3.2/1: Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 71
2.3.2/2: Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 69
2.3.2/3: Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 64A
2.3.2/4: EU's extension towards the East, Main Report, Danish Environmental protection Agency, 1997
2.3.2/5 EEA-ETC/IW - Europe's Environment. The Second Assessment
2.3.2/6 JPC: Joint Comprehensive Environment Action programme
Home page: http://www.helcom.fi
Address
HELSINKI COMMISSION
Katajanokanlaituri 6 B,
FIN-00160 Helsinki,
Finland
Tel.: +358 9 6220 220
Fax: +358 9 6220 2239
E-mail: helcom@mail.helcom.fi
4.3.7 Union of Baltic Cities (UBC) (1991)
Purpose and Origin
The Union of Baltic Cities was established in 1991 in Gdansk, Poland, at the request of 32 cities in the Baltic region.The purpose is to promote the co-operation between the Baltic member cities.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The organisation is open to all coastal cities at the Baltic and to everybody who is interested in the development of the Baltic area. In order to be a member, applicants are requested to send in a written application to UBC. In 1998, 84 Baltic cities were members.
Organisation and Decision Process
The Union of Baltic Cities comprises a Presidium, a Board, and a Secretariat. The Secretariat is located in Gdansk, Poland. The General Meeting is the decisionmaking organ and is the highest authority. The organisation is based on voluntary labour and the management is elected democratically.
The Board includes a member city from each of the 10 member countries around the Baltic Sea.The Board meets at least once every second year.
Today, the Union of Baltic Cities comprises 10 different subcommissions:
| The Commission for Business Cooperation |
| The Commission for Communication |
| The Commission for Culture |
| The Commission for Education |
| The Commission for Health and Social Conditions |
| The Commission for Sports |
| The Commission for Tourism |
| The Commission for Transport |
| The Commission for Urban Planning |
| The Commission for Environment |
The secretariat of the commission comprises an environmental co-ordinator and a project employee.
Fields of Activities and Essential Results
The majority of the work carried out by the Union is carried out within the ten above-mentioned Commissions. The activities within the individual fields of work cover actual projects, exchange of experience and educational seminars, music festivals, and sports arrangements.
The Commission for Environment (KfM) is working on many fronts in order to improve the environment.
| In the development of Agenda 21 for the Baltic countries, the Commission for Environment (KfM) played an active role. It is their objective to implement Agenda 21 on a local level and see to it that the ideas are transformed into sustainable action. |
| The KfM is one of the main organisers in the Baltic Local Agenda 21 - health and sustainable cities, conference' which was held in September 1998 in Finland. This conference was the start of Baltic Local Agenda 21 (BLAF21), comprising municipalities and NGO supported by KfM. |
| Four times a year, the KfM publish a bulletin concerning the environment in the Baltic countries. The bulletin will be printed in 2,500 copies. |
| The KfM has prepared a pilot project named 'Baltic Municipal Environmental Auditing (MEA)', the purpose of which is to create a model for carrying out municipal environmental audits. The model was first tested in Tallinn and is now available for all of the member cities in the form of manuals, formula and other tools. The KfM coordinates the coming revisions and helps the member cities provide funds for this purpose. |
| In 1996 to 1998, KfM was in charge of a training programme named 'Programme on Institutional Strengthening and Human Resource Development', thanks to which approx. 400 environmental specialists were trained in physical planning and the environment, recycling as an element in handling of solid waste, and treatment of contaminated soil. |
| 'The Archipelago sea and sustainable harbour policies' is the Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region of a project which started in 1997. The purpose of the project is to harmonise the harbour politics of the participating cities. External consultants from the Centre for Maritime Studies (University of Turku and Åbo Academy University) carried out a survey of handling and treatment of solid waste and wastewater, and of emissions into the air from passenger/car ferries. Based on this survey, an action plan was commenced in order to reduce regular environmental impacts into the Archipelago Sea coming from passenger/car ferries. |
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The financial funds for financing of UBC partly come from the membership of the individual cities (2,000 USD), from general development support (e.g. USAID), and partly from private donations and grants.
The various projects/programmes are sponsored by different organisations, but often the EU and the World Bank participate.
Relations to the EU
EU provides support for several UBC projects and programmes.
Sources
Publications: Newsletters (approx. three annual newsletters)
Each of the 10 commissions publishes a number of catalogues, magazines, etc.
Information about the Union of Baltic Cities and the member cities can be found on the UBC home page: http://www.ubc.net
4.3.8 VASAB (Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010) (1992)
Purpose and Origin
At a meeting in Karlskrona on 21 August 1992, the Ministers responsible for physical planning from all of the countries around the Baltic Sea decided to prepare a physical and functional development perspective for the Baltic Area, with the Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region 'Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010' (VASAB). The purpose of the co-operation was:
| To create a common picture of the future based on the real conditions and pre-conditions in the region. |
| To be able to present a common Baltic vision for the other parts of Europe. |
| To provide the opportunities to include national development perspectives into an international perspective. |
| To support the development of a network to strengthen the cooperation, including transfer of qualifications and development of information in the region |
The VASAB report, describing the future urban system of the Baltic region, its transport network, nature and cultural landscapes, islands, coastal areas, and border regions, was approved at a Conference of Ministers in Tallinn, Estonia in 1994.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The co-operation was started up by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad, Karelia, St. Petersburg), Sweden, Germany (Bonn, MecklenburgVorpommern and SchleswigHolstein).
Organisation and Decision process
By the approval of the VASAB report, the co-operation was made permanent. The Committee for Spatial Development in the Baltic Sea Region (the VASAB Committee) got and still has the responsibility for following up on the political decisions and action plans. The VASAB Committee is supported by a secretariat.
In order to strengthen the cooperation and the co-ordination of the many activities in the Baltic region, the presidency of the VASAB Committee follows the presidency of the Baltic Sea Council. The presidency lasts one year.
Fields of Activities
The VASAB report and the following activities concentrate on the following planning fields of activities:
| Urban system and urban cooperation |
| Infrastructure, including sustainable sea transport |
| atural and cultural areas, including big islands and coastal areas |
| Planning methods and building up of qualifications |
The VASAB Committee puts much emphasis on co-ordination and cooperation with all relevant actors in the Baltic area. The most important co-operation partners are the Baltic Sea Council, HELCOM, the Union of Baltic Cities, and the Baltic Agenda 21.
Essential Results
| 'From Vision to Action', a revised action plan, approved by the ministers in Stockholm in October 1996. |
| 'Common Recommendations for Spatial Planning of the Coastal Line in the Baltic Sea Region', approved by the ministers in Stockholm in October 1996. |
| Seminars and courses concerning among others planning methods and processes, transfer of method and experience from national development perspectives, integrated coastal zone management, the role of planning in the Baltic Agenda 21 process. |
| Participation in the preparation of the Interreg IIC Programme for the Baltic Sea Region. |
| Participation in the Baltic Agenda 21 process by the report 'Spatial Planning for Sustainable Development in the Baltic Sea Region' and obtained membership of the Baltic 21 SOG group. |
| Three approved Interreg IIC projects, concerning respectively: |
- The functions of the major cities and their development potentials in a Baltic and international perspective.
- The development opportunities within maritime transport.
- VASAB 2010 PLUS - an upgrading and revision of the VASAB report from 1994.
Financing and Resources for Planning Purposes
VASAB has an annual budget, which mainly covers the operation of the secretariat and some seminars and minor projects. In order to be able to meet the requirements of the action plan, VASAB is therefore dependent on further donor funding.The EU programmes of Interreg, Phare and Tacis are the most important assistance programmes that VASAB can use.
Relations to the EU
VASAB is in current contact with the European Commission, especially DGXVI. The planning co-operation among the countries around the Baltic has in many ways inspired and been a model for the initiatives of the EU to the Interreg IIC programme, which covers seven major areas within the territory of the EU.
Sources
Vision and Strategies around the Baltic Sea 2010 - Towards a Framework for Spatial Development in the Baltic Sea Region (VASAB), 1994.
The Baltic Agenda 21: The report 'Spatial Planning for Sustainable Development in the Baltic Sea Region', Baltic 21 Series No. 9/98 can be found at the Baltic 21 home page (http://www.ee/baltic.21). For further information, cf. the Chapter on Baltic 21. Information on the VASAB cooperation can be found at home page (http:// www.vasab.org.pl).
Information on the Interreg IIC Cooperation can be found at home page (http:// www.spacial.baltic.net)
Addresses
VASAB
VASAB 2010 Secretariat
Dlugi Targ 8-10
PL-80-828 Gdansk
Poland
Tel.: +48 58 301 82 55 /58 305 90 93
Fax: +48 58 305 40 05
E-mail: infov@vasab.org.pl
4.3.9 The Sound Committee (1993)
Purpose and Origin
The Sound Committee was established in 1993 as a framework for a political cooperation with a view to a positive financial, social, and cultural development in the Sound region and a durable environmental development.
Geographic Limit and Participants
The Committee comprises Swedish and Danish authorities from the Sound area. I.e. the counties of Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Storstrøm, Vestsjælland, Bornholm and Roskilde, the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg, the Regions of Skåne, Malmø, Lund, Landskrona, and the Municipality of Helsingborg and the Cities of Malmø and Helsingborg. The Swedish and Danish Governments act as observers represented by the Swedish Food Department and the Danish Ministry of Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Environment and Energy.
Fields of Activities
The Committee in general functions as a network constructor, a political platform, and an ambassador for an intensified cooperation across the Sound between persons, industries, and organisations. The Committee initiates and runs its own projects within trade and industry, the labour market, research, training, culture, environment, the Baltic Council, information, communication, and infrastructure.
The Sound Committee holds an annual conference: Øresundstinget (The Sound Session), which in 1998 focused on environment.
The committee works on an environmental programme for the Sound Region, which has been initiated by the Danish and Swedish Governments. The purpose of the environmental programme is to carry out a survey and set up environmental targets for the Sound Region with a view to making the Sound Region one of the cleanest city areas of Europe. The programme finalised its survey phase in 1998. The results have been published in a survey report and a summary report with the Environmental Co-operation in the Baltic Region 'The Conditions of the Environment - how to go on' (Miljøets tilstand - hvordan kommer vi videre).
The environmental programme must be further developed up to the end of year 2000.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
In 1998, the Sound Committee had a budget of approx. 7.5 million SEK. The Committee received financial support from the Nordic Council of Ministers and the EU.
Sources
The Annual Report from the Sound Committee, 1998.
Addresses
The Secretariat of the Sound Committee
Gl. Kongevej 1
1610 Copenhagen V
Denmark
4.3.10 The Sound Water Co-operation (1995)
Purpose and Objective
The Sound Water Co-operation is an agreement of co-operation, which was made in 1995 with the purpose of obtaining a good water environment in the Sound.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The agreement of co-operation was entered between Swedish and Danish counties, municipalities and provinces around the Sound.
Organisation and Decision Process
Representatives of the three counties in the Greater Copenhagen Area, the Municipality of Copenhagen, the Province of Skåne, the Cities of Helsingborg and Malmø, and the Municipality of Landskrona have formed a working group in which professional discussions are taking place. Decisions are made by an overall steering committee upon recommendation from the working group. The steering committee includes officials from the environmental administrations of the parties.
Fields of Activities
The Sound Water Co-operation has published a Sound Bibliography for the period 1990-1996, a report on the impact of harbour activities on the water environment, a pamphlet on the Sound environmental condition - 1997, and they have applied for funding from the EU for an environmental database for the Sound. Furthermore, co-operation is taking place with the Sound Committee to develop objectives for the water areas in the Sound Area.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The Environmental Department of the Municipality of Copenhagen provides financial support to the Secretariat.
Sources
Pamphlets on the Sound Water cooperation.
Address
The Sound Water Cooperation
The Secretariat
C/o Municipality of Copenhagen
Flæsketorvet 68
1711 Copenhagen K
Denmark
4.3.11 The Council of the Baltic Sea States (1992)
Purpose and Origin
The Council of the Baltic Sea States, CBSS, was founded in 1992 with a view to co-ordinate and strengthen the existing cooperation in the Baltic Area.
The main purpose of the co-operation is to further the democratic development of the Baltic Area and create a greater unit between the member countries and ensure a favourable economic development with a view to making the Baltic Area a new growth zone in Europe.
Geographic Limits and Partici pants
The members of the Council of the Baltic States are Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Germany, and the European Commission. The following countries have the status of observer in the Council: France, Italy, the UK, Ukraine, and USA.
Organisational Structure and Decision Process
The work carried out in the council is also based on the UN pact, the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris, and other OSCE documents. The presidency lies with the countries in turns of one year.
The Council, comprising the ministers of foreign affairs of the member countries and a member of the European Commission, meet once every year.The role of the Council is to be a consultative and overall co-ordination forum for the member countries.
The minister of foreign affairs of the country that has the presidency is responsible for co-ordinating the activities of the Council in the periods of time between the annual meetings of the ministers, and for this work the Council is assisted by the Committee of Senior Offices, CSO, comprising representatives from the ministries of foreign affairs of the member countries and from the European Commission. The presidency of the Committee of Senior Officials follows the presidency of the Council.
Three working groups have been set up under the Committee of Senior Officials:
| The Working Group for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (WGDI) |
| The Working Group for Economic Cooperation (WGEC) |
| The Working Group for Nuclear Safety (WGNS) |
In 1998, a permanent international secretariat was set up for the Council of the Baltic Sea States in Stockholm.
The Prime Ministers of the member countries of the Council of the Baltic Sea States meet at regular intervals. The first summit took place in Visby in Sweden in May 1996, the next one in Riga Latvia in January 1998, and the third one in Kolding, Denmark in April 2000.
A group of experts has been formed directly under the Prime Ministers of the member countries, with the purpose of discussing organised crime.
Fields of Activities and Essen tial Results
The fields of activities are reflected in the above mentioned working groups. Besides, EuroFaculty was formed in 1993, the purpose of which is to improve higher education within the fields of law, economics, public administration, and business administration at three universities in the Baltic countries. The idea is to include Kaliningrad as well.
In 1994, a Commissioner for democratic institutions and human rights was nominated, including the rights of minorities. The task of the commissioner is to assist with furthering and strengthening the democratic development and ensure observance of human rights. The commissioner is independent and reports directly to the Council.
In 1997, at the initiative of the economic working group, a consultative body was founded, the Baltic Sea Business Advisory Council (BAC), including experts from trade and industry. The purpose of the council was to further the privatisation and restructuring process in the countries with transitional economy and to further small and medium sized enterprises.
In 1996, The CBSS adopted the following action programmes in order to concretise the activities of the Council:
| Participation in the political life and stable political development development, including participation in local initiatives, NGOs, civil emergency measures, combating of organised crime, free mobility and combating abuse hereof, education and exchange as well as cultural cooperation. |
| Financial integration and devel- development, opment, including financial integration and transition into market economy. The Baltic Region and the EU, transport, physical planning, and energy. |
| Joint and Several Problem-shoot- shooting ing - the Environment of the Baltic, including water planning, waste and chemicals, oil pollution, atmospheric fallout, agriculture, protection of marine ecosystems, sustainable fishing and natural protection. |
The CSO has been requested to follow up on and co-ordinate the implementation of the programmes. Since their adoption, the action programmes have made out the consultative basis for the work programmes of the working groups. As for the follow-up on the environmental action programme, the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) takes care of this.
Baltic 21 is taking care of other parts of the field of environment. At their meeting in June 1998, the Council of the Baltic Sea Countries adopted the Baltic Agenda 21.
The Council of the Baltic Sea States cooperates with a number of subregional actors such as: Baltic Sea States Subregional Co-operation (BSSSC), Baltic Sea Parliamentary Conference, Union of Baltic Cities (UBC), Baltic Chambers of Commerce Association (BCCA), and Baltic Sea Tourism Commission (BTC).The three first of these have the status of 'special participants' in the work of the Council of the Baltic Sea States.
Sources
The Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Information about the CBSS can be found on the following home pages:
http://www.baltinfo.org
http://www.cbsscommissioner.org
Address
The CBSS Secretariat
Strömsborg
P.O. Box 2010
103 Stockholm
Tel.: +46 8 440 1920
Fax: +46 8 440 1944
E-mail: cbss@cbss.st
4.4 The Other Parts of International Environmental Cooperation
Chapter 3.2 includes a description of the contents and the ongoing work with the conventions of the European Council and the UN, but besides this some environment political work takes place, which is directed towards the future, and which may lead to new conventions. This work takes place in many forums and it may be difficult to get an overview of it all and understand the correlation.
There also is the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which is a global cooperation on protecting nature and the multiplicity of the ecosystems. It is useful to know the IUCN, among others because the organisation has wide knowledge of the natural resources of the world, also of the Baltic Area.
Before talking about legal obligations, a small number of countries may make political agreements as to what the individual country will do and what the counties will work on in a broader perspective. The North Sea Conference is an example of this type of political co-operation based on the pollution of the North Sea. Many international organisations have integrated environmental protection in their work, in one way or the other. This is the case for the security political organisations, the conference on security and cooperation in Europe and NATO, and it applies to organisations for economic development and trade such as the OECD and the World Trade Organisation,WTO.
There is a great difference in these organisations' work on environmental issues and the work's importance for environmental politics. This goes from financial support for environmental research and fellowship programmes (NATO) to the dangerous subject of environment and free trade (WTO), the latter of which may have great influence on the future regulation of environmental issues.
In the following, the other forums for international environmental co-operation are described, which are of importance for the environmental co-operation in the Baltic Area, and in which the countries in the Baltic area take active part.
4.4.1 The North Sea Conference (1984)
Purpose and Origin
The first North Sea Conference was held in Bremen, with participants from Belgium, Denmark, France, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Germany, Great Britain, and the European Commission. The objective of the conference was to give a political push forward to the work within relevant international organisations (among others the Oslo Convention on dumping, the Paris Convention on land-based pollution, and the MARPOL Convention on pollution from ships), and to ensure a more efficient implementation of the existing international decisions related to the sea environment in the North Sea.
Fields of Activities
At each conference and ministers meeting, the ministers have taken on a number of political obligations, with the purpose of protecting or improving the environment of the North Sea. The decisions made at the conferences have been expressed in ministerial declarations or conclusions, and they have been of great importance, influencing the environmental legislation on a national level, and promoting the work within international forums.
The Esbjerg declaration of 1995 deals with a long series of subjects such as species and habitats, pollution by hazardous substances and nutrients, radioactive substances and pollution from ships and offshore installations. As a consequence of the concern about the fishing industry's impact on both commercially important fish species and other fish species, and on the eco-system as a whole, fishing activities were introduced as a new subject.
The next North Sea Conference will be held in Norway in 2002.
Follow-up and Preparation
By making the Esbjerg declaration, the ministers of the environment of the North Sea states decided that meetings should be held regularly and on officials level in order to implement the co-operation that is necessary to follow up on the decisions made at the fourth North Sea conference. These meetings are named Committees of North Sea Senior Officials (CONSSO).
Representatives from the North Sea countries and the European Commission take part in CONSSO, and as at the conferences, also representatives from a number of IGOs participate (among others OSPAR, ICES and IMO). Meetings in CONSSO are normally held once a year, but they are held more often at times where ministerial meetings and conferences are being prepared.
The text of the Esbjerg declaration and further information about the North Sea Conferences and the follow-up work can be found at the home page of the Norwegian North Sea Secretariat (http:// www.odin.dep.no/nsc/).
The Preparation and the Results of the Conferences
Before the conferences , reviews were made, as a basis for deciding which subjects should be included in the ministerial declarations. Before the fourth North Sea Conference in 1995, the North Sea countries in common made a progress report about the progress that had until then been obtained within the protection of the environment of the North Sea. Also a Quality Status Report was made concerning the environmental conditions and the environmental impacts in the North Sea. In the same way, before the mid-term ministerial meeting in 1997 in Bergen, an Assessment Report was made about fishing and similar subjects related to species and habitats.
It appeared from the review made before the Hague conference in 1990 that much progress had been obtained since 1984, but that the progress had been varying and that the Bremen declaration had not been fully implemented. It was found that there was still a need for further measures to reduce the outlets of hazardous substances into the North Sea both from land and through the atmosphere; there was still a need for recommending the use of non-polluting technologies, for protecting the specially vulnerable areas of the North Sea, for reducing the discharges from ships and off-shore installations, for maintaining rules that have already been adopted, and for building up a better scientific basis for assessments of the condition of the North Sea.
The review from 1995 - the Progress Report - concluded that after the third conference in Hague in 1990, further and important progress had been obtained by the transformation of the political initiatives of the North Sea Conference into binding rules within international and EU legislation. These new and comprehensive requirements have in many ways fundamentally changed the understanding of the future environmental protection work in relation to the North Sea. However, the Hague declaration had not been fully implemented within all fields, and in several ways there was still a need for further measures to be made.
Relevance for other Waters, in cluding the Baltic
In general, the North Sea Conference has meant that all of the North Sea countries and the European Commission have accepted the obligation to use the principle of precaution and the principle of the polluter pays in their work for protecting the marine environment.The signing of the new OSPAR convention in 1992 and its coming into force in 1998 by the adoption of objectives and working strategies for a long series of subjects, represent an important progress initiated by the decisions of the North Sea Conference, and in reality the principles are visible through the adoption of the EU and OSPAR regulations, which concern the areas included in the North Sea Declarations.
Special emphasis shall be given to the objective of the Esbjerg Declaration to prohibit pollution of the North Sea by a continued reduction of discharges, outlets into the air and diffuse contributions of hazardous substances. In this way, it will be possible to reach the target of stopping these types of pollution within a period of 25 years, with the final objective to obtain concentrations in the environment that are close to the background values for natural substances and concentrations close to zero for synthetic substances produced by human beings.
This objective was adopted in 1998 in both OSPAR and HELCOM (which means the Baltic) together with strategies of how to meet the objective; it has also had influence in the EU Directive about the framework for the future water policy of the European Community.
As an other example can be mentioned the decision of the Esbjerg Declaration not to dump worn out offshore platforms. In 1998, OSPAR decided that by and large all worn out platforms in the entire North Sea area should be brought onto land.
Sources
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
The home page of the North Sea Secretariat:
http://www.odin.dep.no/md/nsc/
4.4.2 The Conference on Safety and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
Purpose and Origin
As a finalisation of the conference on safety and co-operation in Europe (OSCE) from 1973 to 1975, the participating states agreed upon the so-called Helsinki Final Act, in which a number of mutual political commitments are given to observe certain principles for the mutual relations of the states and promote the safety and co-operation in Europe. The final act was at the time characterised as an agenda for the East-West relationship for the next century and was therefore regarded as a long-term project. Economy and environment have all the time been part of the agenda as a reflection of the entire accession of the co-operation to the safety question.
Geographic Limits and Participants
33 states from Eastern and Western Europe, USA and Canada participated in the first conference. Today, 55 states participate, including all of the Baltic countries.
Organisation and Decision Process
OSCE is not a traditional international organisation. The organisation is not based on treaties; its work is based on the political decisions made by consensus at summits between state and government heads every second year. The work of the OSCE is co-ordinated by the presidency, which also represent the OSCE on a number of occasions.
Fields of Activities
Many of the questions, which are considered in the final act, are traditional subjects for international co-operation. It refers to a wide extent to other international documents, including the UN pact and the UN human rights conventions.
The final act is divided into three main sections, the popular names of which are 'baskets'.
Basket No. 1 concerns questions related to safety in Europe.
Basket No. 2 concerns cooperation within the financial, scientific and technological fields, and energy and environment.
Basket No. 3 concerns co-operation with the human field and stipulations on promotion of free mobility of information and ideas across the borders.
The most important decisions concern determination of the very fundamental standards and norms for the behaviour of the states towards each other and towards their citizens. The norms for the relationships between states among others concern agreements within the military field concerning arms control and civil control of military services.The norms related to internal behaviour in the states concern a common acceptance that an essential condition for the countries to be able to live together in peace and safety is that all societies are based on democracy, constitutional principles, respect for the human rights, and market economy.
It is a main task for the OSCE to control that the countries live up to these standards - and to work for progress if this is not the case.
The OSCE can not as such be in charge of the implementation of all of its decisions. This task is most often the responsibility of other and more specialised international organisations and the countries themselves. The OSCE in this way functions as normative, giving political impulses for others to follow up on.
The OSCE follow-up process, which is as mentioned a continuous process, must as far as environmental questions are concerned, first and foremost be regarded as an opportunity to give incentives to prioritise and intensify the work within the existing conventions, etc.
After a restructuring, the OSCE's efforts within the field of environment are concentrated on making seminars on especially energy and environment. The OSCE cooperates with other international organisations, among others UNEP and UNECE.
Technical and Financial Support Programmes
In some fields, the OSCE contributes directly. This especially applies to the new independent countries, among others in the Baltic Region. The OSCE helps the countries live up to the standards - and thereby become part of the value community that the OSCE represents. Assistance has among others been given to the preparation of national action plans within the field of environment.
Sources
Booklet prepared by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, on the Organisation for Safety and Co-operation in Europe (The OSCE).
Home page: http://www.osce.org/
4.4.3 Environmental Co-operation in the Council of Europe (1949)
Purpose and Origin
The European Council was founded in 1949 and is thus the eldest European cooperation organisation. The main purpose of the Council is preservation of the pluralistic democracy, protection of human rights, and maintenance of the constitutional principle.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The European Council has 41 member states, including all of the Western European countries and a number of central and eastern European countries. Among the latter are all of the countries around the Baltic.
Organisation and Decision Process
The European Council has a very branched secretariat at its disposal. Besides, the Council has a huge network of contacts to voluntary organisations, which have continuous influence on the work of the Council. The European Council has a parliamentary assembly, the members of which have been selected by the parliaments of the member states.
Fields of Activities
The essential tasks of the organisation are within culture, education, and legislation in the narrowest sense, the latter not least because of the tasks related to the European Human Rights Convention. The European Natural Protection Convention (the Bern Convention), which came into force in 1982, the Convention on Protection of the Architectonical Heritage in Europe (the Granada Convention) from 1985, and the revised convention on Protection of the Archaeological Heritage in Europe (Valetta, 1982) were created within the European Council. The European Council has also been in charge of the preparation and the negotiations concerning the pan European biodiversity strategy, which was adopted at the pan-European conference of Ministers of the Environment in Sofia in 1995. The strategy can be seen as a pan European follow-up on the global convention on biological diversity from 1992, cf. Chapter 3,2.13.
Also the Strasbourg Convention on protection of the Rivers of Europe has been created within the European Council, which has also carried out a number of ministerial conferences on planning, natural protection and preservation. The ministerial conferences on regional/special planning (CEMAT) have been held approximately every third year since the first conference was held in Bonn in 1970. At CEMAT in 1983 in Spain, the Ministers adopted the European charter on regional planning (the Torremolino Charter), and a few years later 'the European Regional Planning Strategy'. A number of campaigns have been adopted within the European Council, among others concerning the architectonic heritage of Europe, urban renewal, and the open landscape. In 1993, a convention was adopted concerning damages caused by activities hazardous to the environment. In 1998, a convention on strengthening of environmental protection by penalty clauses was adopted. The European Council has during the last ten years given priority to the work concerning protection of the nature in Eastern and Central Europe.
Relations to the EU
The co-operation between the European Council and the EU is rather close, and the latter participates in connection with preparation of conventions and at parties' meetings in existing conventions at the same level as the member countries, when EU competence is involved. This is especially the case in the Bern Convention, because the two EU directives on protection of wild birds and on protection of habitats for wild flora and fauna (the Habitat Directive) to a great extent implement the Bern Convention within the EU.
There is also a good co-operation with the EU within the CEMAT (the Conferences of the European Council on Regional Planning) in connection with the preparation of the physical, functional development perspective of the European Council concerning physical planning.
Sources
The Danish Agency of Forestry and Natural Protection
The planning department of the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy
Home page: http://www.coe.fr/eng/acte/ eenviro.htm
4.4.4 Environmental Co-operation in NATO (1969)
Purpose and Origin
The environmental co-operation within NATO takes place within the CCMS - the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. The co-operation started back in 1969, with the view to give the alliance 'a social dimension'. The main task is to arrange for the exchange of technical and scientific information and knowledge about the practical use hereof at the profit of all of the member countries. In the early 1990'ies, the work was extended to also include the NACC - the North Atlantic Cooperation Council - which has later been replaced by the EAPC, the EuroAtlantic Partnership Council, which comprises the former Eastern European Countries, as well as Finland, Austria, Sweden, and Switzerland - in total 28 countries.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The participants are Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Great Britain, the USA, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary.
Organisation and Decision Process
The CCMS meets twice a year in plenum, as well as once every year with the EAPC countries. The CCMS does not carry out research work itself, since the work is carried out decentralised, through pilot projects. Besides, so-called ERFA groups have been set up, which function as efficient and very targeted forums for exchange of knowhow.
Participation in the projects is voluntary. As part of the projects, workshops and conferences are held. At the end of the projects, these are in the forms of overviews submitted to the members of the committee and to the North Atlantic Council. The more technical reports are available for all interested parties.
The results of the project work can in general be used by the member countries on a voluntary basis. These either has the form of technical solutions models or various forms of recommendations.
Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities
The CCMS has carried out projects within a broad range of subjects. 'Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment and Clean up of Contaminated Land and Groundwater' is one of the subjects. Another subject that is being dealt with is clean up of former military installations.
Financing and Resources for Scientific Cooperation
Projects etc. are basically financed by the participants or by a minor part of the countries. However, funds exist for a limited fellowship programme and for a study programme, which provides financial support to the participating projects.
Technical and Financial Support Programmes
No real technical or financial support programmes have been established under the Committee. By the foundation of the CCMS Environmental ClearingHouse System - CCMS ECHS in 1995, the opportunity for exchanging results from pilot projects and other sources was considerably strengthened.
Relevance for the Baltic Region
The co-operation is of limited relevance to the Baltic Region, as no special programmes are directed towards the Baltic.
Sources
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Home page: http://www.nato.int/
4.4.5 Environmental Co-operation with the UN
Protection of nature and environment is part of the UN's work within several cooperation forums and organisations; both within the global UNGASS, IMO, IAEA, WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UNDP, and within the regional ECE. Besides, the UN has a special organisation for nature and environmental matters, UNEP (United Nations Environment programme). A few conventions have been negotiated and finalised under the UN.
In the following, only organisations, which have at present prepared environmental protection conventions, are specifically described.
4.4.5.1 The UN's Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
Purpose and Origin
The environmental co-operation within UN/ECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) has been created through 40 years of discussions, negotiations, and co-operation. The purpose of the environmental co-operation is first and foremost to reduce the cross-border pollution in a European context through international acts, resolutions, decisions, and declarations and the construction of a branched network between the member countries, international organisations, financial institutions, and environmental organisations.
Geographic Limits and Participants
All European countries, including all countries around the Baltic, as well as USA and Canada, participate in ECE's environmental cooperation.
Organisation and Decision Process
The overall guidelines for the work of the ECE, including the development of the work programme and prioritisation of the Environment Programme for Europe (the ECE), are decided by the Committee on Environmental Policy (CEP), whereas the follow-up work in connection with the conventions is controlled by independent committees with reference to CEP.
Fields of Activities
The most visible result of the environmental co-operation within the UN/ECE has been the adoption of a number of environmental conventions and protocols, the international environmental effect of which can to a great extent be found in the fact that these conventions comprise both Western and Eastern Europe. Within some fields - for instance the convention for long-range, cross-border air pollution and 4.4.5 Environmental Co-opera tion with the UN Protection of nature and environment is part of the UN's work within several cooperation forums and organisations; both within the global UNGASS, IMO, IAEA, WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UNDP, and within the regional ECE. Besides, the UN has a special organisation for nature and environmental matters, UNEP (United Nations Environment programme). A few conventions have been negotiated and finalised under the UN. In the following, only organisations, which have at present prepared environmental protection conventions, are specifically described. the convention on public access to environmental information, access to participation in decisions within the field of environment, and access to legal testing within environmental matters - it can be observed that these regulations form the basis for later international measures, including EU directives.
Within the last 20 years, 11 binding legal acts, 5 conventions, and 6 protocols have been adopted. The conventions include the following:
| The Convention on long-range crossborder air pollution (1979). |
| The Convention on environmental impact assessment in a cross-border contact (1991). |
| The Convention on cross-border impacts of industrial accidents (1992). |
| The Convention on protection and application of cross-border watercourses and international lakes (1992). |
| The Convention on public access to environmental information, participation in decisions within the field of environment, and legal testing in environmental matters. |
Hereto comes the adoption of 6 protocols, all in connection with the air convention, comprising:
| The Protocol on long-term financing of the co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluation of the longrange transmission of air pollutants in Europe (EMEP), 1984. |
| The Protocol on the reduction of sulphur emissions or their transboundary fluxes by at least 30 per cent, 1985. |
| The Protocol on control on emissions of nitrogen oxides or their transboundary fluxes, 1988. |
| The protocol on control of emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or their trans-boundary fluxes, 1991. |
| The protocol on heavy metals, 1988. |
| The Protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 1998. |
The Conventions and the protocols are mentioned in Chapter 4.
Concurrently with the adoption of internationally binding legal acts, the environmental co-operation was speeded up in connection with the change of system in Eastern Europe, at which time the socalled 'Environment for Europe' process began. The first pan-European ministerial Conference was held in Dobris in 1991 in the former Czechoslovakia. The purpose was to form a new European environmental forum. In Dobris, it was agreed to develop three important components:
| An Environment programme for Europe (ECE), under the guidance of ENECE. |
| An Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe (EAP) in a Task Force under OECD. |
| An Environmental Status Report for Europe, with the European Environmental Agency as the executing part (the Dobris Report). |
Since then, three pan-European Conferences of the Ministers of Environment have been held.The second one was held in Lucerne, Switzerland in 1993, with one of the most important results being the adoption of an action programme for Central and Eastern Europe. At the third Conference of ministers in Sofia, Bulgaria in 1995, among others ECE's environmental programme (EPE) and the panEuropean Biodiversity and Landscape Strategy were adopted. The environmental programme includes a number of different tasks, including the preparation and follow-up on legally binding environmental acts and less binding instruments within the fields of biodiversity, sustainable development, and environmental integration (especially within transport, energy, and agriculture).
At the fourth pan-European Conference of the Ministers for the Environment in June 1998 in Aarhus, Denmark the environmental programme (EPE) of the UN/ECE was developed within the following fields:
| Adoption and signing of the Convention in public access to environmental information, public participation in decisions within the field of environment, and access to legal testing within environmental matters. |
| Adoption and signing of two air protocols concerning POP (persistent organic pollutants) and heavy metals. |
| Adoption of a policy statement and guidelines on making energy more efficient. |
| Adoption of a strategy on phasing out of the lead content of petrol. |
| Adoption of a resolution on the further work on the pan-European Biodiversity and Landscape Strategy. |
At the fourth pan-European Conference of the Ministers for the Environment in Aarhus, it was also decided to refocus the efforts towards the Newly Independent States (the NIS countries). The Environmental problems are tremendous and still increasing in the NIS countries, and so far sufficient political attention has not been present, neither on national nor on international level. Furthermore, in relation to the EPE programme, it was decided to increase the efforts towards practical implementation of the same obligations. It was also decided to increase the intervals between the conferences of ministers from 3 to 4 years.
In November 1997, a regional conference on transport and environment was held. At the conference, a declaration of transport and environment was adopted, as well as an action plan (Vienna, November 1997). In the declaration, the participant countries among others declare their willingness to work for a sustainable transport sector, work for better energy efficiency, and for less polluting vehicles and petrol, more efficient and sustainable transport systems, also in the cities, more safe transport of hazardous goods, and for protection of vulnerable areas, including the water environment.
The Vienna declaration has been followed up upon at a conference on environment and health, where one of the main themes was transport and health. The conference was held by the World Health Organisation under the UN in London in 1999. The conference resulted in a charter, which recommends the WHO and other international organisations to continue their work towards a sustainable transport sector. According to the charter, the preparation of a report is also required, clarifying existing international agreements and legal rules within the field of transport. The report is meant to identify the opportunities for new and non-binding activities and the need for a binding agreement within this field.
Relevance for the Baltic Region
The environmental co-operation within the UN/ECE must, in relation to the Baltic Region, which partly comprises countries which are members of the European Union, East European Countries with opportunities of obtaining accession to the EU, and a NIS country, be seen as a cooperation that supplements the Baltic cooperation, especially with the adoption of binding legal acts, whereby uniform rules are created within the areas in question. The relevance of the UN/ECE work in relation to the Baltic co-operation must also be to ensure sufficient co-ordination so that initiatives and decisions do not overlap, but supplement each other.
In the declaration and the charter on sustainable transport, it is recommended that special financial support be provided to the new countries.
Sources
Home page: http://www.unece.org/ env_h.htm
4.4.5.2 UNGASS - Sustainable Development (1977)
Based on UNGASS, the United Nations General Assembly Special Session conference in June 1997, the international society made a status of the environmental efforts after the Rio Conference. It was found that for some of the big overall matters, no progress could be seen. This is first and foremost the case for the rich countries' financial support to the developing countries. The objective of the Rio Conference concerning 0.7% financial support from industrialised countries to developing countries has only been met by few countries; there are even a number of countries that go in the opposite direction.
UNGASS made a work programme for five years for the Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD).The implementation of the work programme takes place within many organs of the UN, and the International Committee on Sustainable Development (IACSD) assures the coordination work.
Up to the next conference 10 years after Rio, the CSD is meant to consider the following subjects: the waters, sustainable tourism, sustainable production, and consumption.
Sources
IACSD home page; www.un.org
4.4.5.3 The Environmental Co-operation within IMO (1958)
Purpose and Origin
The International Marine Organisation was founded in 1958 as a body within the UN. The purpose of IMO is to work for common rules within shipping and navigation in order to improve safety at sea and reduce sea pollution from ships and installations. This has resulted in 40 conventions and protocols. The most important conventions within the field o environment is the Marpol Convention concerning pollution from ships, the London Convention on dumping, and the Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response.
Organisation and Decision Process
IMO's organisation comprises an assembly, a council, a secretariat, and five committees. 156 countries are members of the organisation, including all of the Baltic countries. Besides, the EU is associated to the organisation as an observer and a long series of interest groups have consultation rights.
The assembly is the supreme body of IMO. It comprises all of the member countries and meets every second year. The assembly makes all recommendations, work programmes, and the budget.
The Council comprises 32 member countries selected by the Assembly for a twoyear period. The Council monitors the implementation of the work of the organisation and is in charge of the functions of the Assembly in the period of time between the meetings.
The Secretariat is in charge of the daily work in the organisation.
The IMO has five Committees:The Committee for Safety at sea, the Committee for protection of the marine environment, the Committee for Legal Matters, the Committee for Technical Co-operation, and the Facilitation Committee.The Committees are open for all of the member countries. Decisions made are based on consensus. Proposals of preparation of new conventions or modifications are normally discussed in one of the committees and must be approved either by the Assembly or the Council.
In order to facilitate the adoption of modifications, the convention concerning setting up of IMO has been changed so that the principle of tacit consent applies. This means that if no objections have been received from a number of countries the modifications to the treaties come into force after at least one year.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The IMO is a global organisation; 177 countries are associated to the organisation, including all countries around the Baltic.
Financing and Resources for Environmental Purposes
The budget for 1997-98 is 63 million $. The size of the financial support from the member countries is based on the total number of tonnes of merchant ships registered in the country.
Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities
The IMO has adopted a number of conventions concerning pollution from ships. There are rules concerning discharge of oil, other hazardous substances, wastewater and waste at sea. Rules on prevention in the form of reporting requirements, requirements concerning emergency plans in case of oil pollution, arrangements at ships and reception facilities for waste, etc. in ports, and on air pollution from ships and platforms. Besides, there is a convention on prohibition of dumping and cooperation on emergency plans and assistance in case of oil leakage, the London Convention and the OPRC Convention, respectively. The new fields of regulation are regulation of hazardous substances in anti-fouling composition plant, undesired organisms in ballast water, and extension of the OPRC Convention to include other substances than oil.
Technical and Financial Support Programmes
The IMO has developed a programme on technical co-operation in order to provide support to countries in lack of technical know-how and resources. An important part of the programme is the International Navigation University in Malmö, Sweden, which was set up in 1983 funded by the IMO, and which offers technical training. The university is now only supported by other donors.
Relevance for the Baltic Area
The Marpol Convention on prevention of ships-generated pollution has described the Baltic as a special area of protection, which entails restrictions of the discharge rules for oil that otherwise prevail for navigation. The Baltic has a high traffic load, which means that the co-operation with the IMO is highly relevant.
Sources
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
4.4.5.4 The International Atomic Energy Agency (1957)
Purpose and Origin
The International Atomic Energy Agency has two main purposes. One is to promote and extend the contributions of atomic energy to peace, health and wealth of this world; another is to make sure that the financial assistance and other activities provided by the agency are not used to support military purposes.
The regulations for the IAEA were approved in 1956 at an international conference held at the headquarters of the UN, and the Agency was founded in 1957 in Vienna, Austria. The agency was approved the same year as an autonomous organisation under the UN.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The IAEA is a global organisation. All countries around the Baltic participate in the work.
Organisation and Decision Process
The politics and programmes of the IAEA are governed by 'The General Conference', comprising all of the member states of the IAEA, which meet annually, and by a management committee of 35 members.
Fields of Activities and essential Results
Besides being in charge of the development of international conventions, the agency promotes and governs the development of peaceful exploitation of atomic energy, sets up standards for atomic safety and environmental protection, helps member states through technical co-operation and furthers the exchange of scientific and technical information.
One of the main functions of the agency is to ensure that radioactive materials and equipment meant for peaceful use are not redirected to being used for military purposes. Every year, approx. 200 inspections are carried out at more than 900 installations all over the world. The safety recommendations set up the agency are used by the countries as a basis for rules and standards within this field.
Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes
The Agency assists the member states building up radiation protection and infrastructure for handling of waste. The IAEA has established a model for interregional projects, which is meant to upgrade the infrastructure for radiation protection in the member countries. The inputs of the agency are among others courses and workshops on specific aspects of radiation protection, experts' visits, and supply of basic equipment.
Sources
The Danish Agency of Emergency Measures
4.4.5.5 UNESCO - The UN's Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (1945)
Purpose and Origin
UNESCO, The United Nations' Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, was founded in November 1945 with the purpose of contributing to peace and safety in the world by promoting cooperation between the nationals within the following fields: education, science, culture, and communication. UNESCO's headquarters are located in Paris.
Geographic Limits and Participants
UNESCO is a global organisation. All the Baltic countries are member states.
Organisation and Decision Process
UNESCO is managed by a General Conference, with representatives from all member states. Meetings are held every second year, at which decisions are taken concerning programme and budget for the next two-year period, strategies and choice of members of the steering committee.
The steering committee, comprising representatives of 58 member countries, meets twice every year. This is an administrative council, which is responsible for following up on decisions made at conferences and for the preparation of the conferences.
A secretariat is in charge of the daily work, including the execution of the twoyear programmes decided by the member states.
As something unique for an organisation under the UN, UNESCO has set up national commissions in 180 member countries composed of members from intellectual and scientific circles, who take part in the development, execution and evaluation of the programmes. Regular meetings between the Secretary-Generals of the commissions on regional and international level keep UNESCO informed on both local and global needs.
Fields of Activities and essen tial Results
The most important fields of activities and essential results of UNESCO have been the Convention on Protection of the Cultural and Natural heritage of the World. The organisation is very active within training in environmental protection and is working closely together with among others UNEP and IUCN on the implementation of Agenda 21.
In connection with Agenda 21, UNESCO has given priority to the work on scientific problems, education, knowledge of environmental questions and training, capacity development in developing countries concerning cleaner technology, oceans, coastal zones and small islands, freshwater resources, biodiversity, desert prevention, and renewable energy.
The Inter-Governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) is an organisation under UNESCO.
Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes
UNESCO especially has support programmes within the field of education, but also projects on environmental problems in coastal cities, safeguarding of freshwater supply, and biological diversity.
Sources
UNESCO's home page
Home page: www.unesco.org
4.4.5.6 UNEP (The United Nations' Environmental programme) and Habitat (The United Nations' Centre for Human Settlements)
Purpose and Origin
The UNEP is the UN's body for protection of environment and nature. The organisation is based in Nairobi, Kenya, but it has special regional offices in all parts of the world. Also the UN's Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS/Habitat), which takes care of habitation and planning matters, is based in Nairobi, Kenya. The UNEP is meant, as an operative environmental body, to carry out principles and policies, which have been adopted in for instance UNGASS, in the form of conventions, action plans, and programmes.
The UNEP has during late years been through a very serious crisis, both administrative and political. The financial support to the UNEP's core budget, the Environmental Fund, has gradually decreased during the 90'ies. The engagement and political support to the UNEP from the individual countries have been decreasing. Among the western countries, especially the EU countries, the confidence in the UNEP and the belief that the UNEP can function as an efficient global environmental organisation, have increased. Klaus Töpfer has, on recommendation, chaired an international Task Force, which has made a number of recommendations on how to improve and strengthen the work of the UNEP. The recommendations also concern UNCHS/Habitat. This organisation has been through serious crises and financial difficulties. The administration of the organisation has been insufficient, even if the work of the organisation on human settlements has been well approved.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The UNEP is a global organisation, which also comprises all of the countries around the Baltic. However, the direct cooperation with these countries goes through the UNEP's regional office for Europe, which together with the European Council is in charge of the secretarial functions for the Pan-European Biodiversity and Landscape Strategy.
Organisation and Decision Process
The UNEP has a Board of Management, which functions as a kind of Board of Directors for the UNEP. The Board of Management includes representatives from 58 countries, who are selected so that the countries are members in turns.
Fields of Activities
The General Assembly of the UN has decided that the UNEP should preferably have a strengthened role in connection with international conventions, including their implementation.
A number of convention have been adopted within the UNEP, including the convention on biological diversity, the PIC Convention on export of hazardous substances, the Vienna convention on protection of the ozone layer, and the Basel convention on transport of hazardous waste.
A new UNEP convention were initiated, the objective of which to phase out or regulate 12 named POPs (persistent organic compounds). The 12 compounds are adrine, chordan, DDT, dieldrine, endrine, heptachlor, HCB, mirex, toxaphen, PCB, and dioxins/furans.
The Convention is meant to cover regulation of POPs from all sources and replace and 'globalise' the protocol on POPs in the ECE air convention.
The UNEP has overall administrative tasks for the independent secretariats for a number of conventions, including the Washington Convention on international trade with threatened species of animals and plants (CITES), the Vienna Convention on protection of the ozone layer, the Basel Convention on transport of hazardous waste, the Biodiversity Convention, and the Bonn Convention on protection of migrating species of wild animals.
It is part of the secretarial function that the UNEP meets with the parties and with parties of other relevant conventions. Hereto comes that the UNEP works with the fields that are relevant in relation to the Conventions; these are among others biodiversity, the atmosphere, industry and environment, environmental technology, chemical substances, health, environmental economy, and trade and environment.
The UNEP also works with environmental legislation, environmental assessment, environmental information and education.
Technical and Financial Support Programmes
The UNEP is in charge of technical support programmes for the developing countries, including training within the fields of environment.Together with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank, the UNEP takes part in implementing Global Environment Facility (GEF) Programmes.
Sources
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
4.4.6 The Environmental Co-operation within the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1961)
Purpose and Origin
The OECD was founded in 1961 with the following main purposes:
| further economic growth and employment in the member countries, |
| further economic and social welfare through co-ordination of the political fields of the member countries, |
| stimulate and harmonise the cooperation with the developing countries in a direction, which is favourable for these. |
The OECD analyses the economic development in the member countries. Representatives from the member countries meet regularly, with a view to compare and coordinate national and international political efforts.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The OECD today has the following 29 members: All of the EU countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, USA, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, Turkey, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic.
Organisational Structure and Decision process
A Secretary-General and a number of Deputies manage the OECD. The secretariat is divided into a number of professional directories. One of these is the Environmental Policy Committee (EPOC). The committee functions as an umbrella body for a number of committees with working groups, which are working on environmental matters within the fields of climate, chemicals, taxes and duties, investments, waste, etc. Besides, the committee functions as an umbrella organisation for working committees set down in cooperation with other OECD directorates, for in- s stance the Joint Working Party for environment, trade and environment, and agriculture, respectively.The committee is also an umbrella organisation for very specialised working groups, for instance the Task Force for Implementation of environmental programmes in Central and Eastern Europe.
The committee meets twice every year.The committee considers the results of the various committees and groups, prioritises the tasks, determines the working programme and budget for the years to come, and close down or set up work committees or groups. Besides this, the committee prepares meetings for the OECD ministers for the environment, which take place approx. once every third year. The ministers for the environment make recommendations within the field of environment, which are presented to the Council of the OECD due final prioritisation and decision. The Council meets once per year and includes the ministers or economics/foreign affairs of the OECD countries. The daily work within the OECD is co-ordinated at weekly meetings, which are covered by the local OECD ambassadors of the OECD countries.
Environmental Politics and Fields of Activities
The structure of the OECD is during these years being reorganised, with the purpose of modifying the organisation so that it is to a greater extent able to assist the surroundings in its efforts to obtain sustainable development.
The recommendations build on the idea that sustainable development is obtained by taking a horizontal view, which harmonises and integrates the policy within the fields of economics, environment, and social affairs, and that the OECD countries can help the member countries in this connection.
As an important step in the implementation of the strategy, the OECD plans to extend and intensify the horizontal work towards a more sustainable development; this can be done by giving special focus to the following four fields of work: Climate changes, environmental impact of financial subsidies, technological development, and behaviour indicators.
Financing and Resources for Scientific Work
The EAP Task Force of the OECD is only working as a secretariat. A number of their collection and information activities may be seen as scientific. However, the Task Force does not have funds for financing of scientific work.
Technical and Financial Sup port Programmes
The EAP Task Force of the OECD is active within technical support itself. The task force holds and participates in workshops and gives bilateral support to CEE and NIS countries within the fields of environment, financing, and financial control instruments.
Relevance for the Baltic Region
The Eastern European countries around the Baltic take part in the work comprised under the field of the Task Force. For the Eastern European countries, this is very big need for having concrete information and ideas within the field of environmental economics.The work of the Task Force is very relevant for these countries.
4.4.7 The Environmental Co-operation within the IUCN
Purpose and Origin
The IUCN - the World Conservation Union (formerly International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN) is a global union, the purpose of which is to affect and promote societies all over the world to conserve nature and the diversity of the eco-systems, and to make sure that all use of natural resources takes place at a uniform and ecologically sustainable basis.
Geographic Limits and Participants
The organisation has approx. 900 members in 133 countries, comprising governments (74), public authorities (100), and private organisations (approx. 710). Besides, 8,500 individuals participate as experts in the committees and networks, etc. of the organisation, with relation to conservation of biodiversity. The contributions from members are determined according to a weighed scale, but besides a number of countries provide financial support to programmes and projects. These are the Netherlands, Switzerland, Canada, and the Nordic countries.
The IUCN in the Baltic Region
The IUCN has 44 members in Eastern Europe and 259 members in Western Europe. In Central and Eastern Europe, the IUCN has national offices in the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Russia, and project offices in Bulgaria and Romania. The regional Europe office of the IUCN regularly publishes a Newsletter for Central and Eastern Europe, and besides the organisation has during late years been very active in Eastern Europe, where in connection with an Eastern Europe Programme a number of publications on different subjects were published, for instance 'Environmental Status Report' (several countries) and reports on 'Status of Integration of Biodiversity into NEAPs in Central and Eastern Europe', 'privatisation of Nature' and 'Tanks and Thyme - Biodiversity in Former Soviet Military Areas in Central Europe'.
Organisation and Decision Process
The IUCN is managed by a world congress (every third year) and a council, comprising the 'elected' president, 24 regional members selected by the world congress, representatives and chairmen of the six permanent commissions also selected by the congress. The commissions comprise a network of internationally leading technical, scientific, and political experts, who are working for the IUCN on a voluntary basis. The six commissions comprise:
| The Commission on Eco-System Management |
| The Commission on Education and Communication |
| The Commission on Environmental Law |
| The Commission on Environmental Strategy and Planning |
| The Commission on National parks and Protected Areas |
| The Species Survival Commission |
The structure and decision processes of the commissions are to a high degree 'flat' and directed towards ensuring an efficient exchange of information of high professional quality. The Commissions are among others active in arrangements of international conferences and workshops.
The IUCN has a global secretariat (the headquarters of which is in Switzerland), but the headquarters becomes still more decentralised with a total of 40 regional and country-based offices. Besides, there exist specialised offices such as the 'Environmental Law Centre' (Germany) and World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UK). A President, who is selected by the Council, manages the secretariat.
Fields of Activities
The fields of activities of the IUCN are collected in different main programmes:
| The Biodiversity Policy programme |
| The Environmental Education and Communication programme |
| The Environmental Law Centre |
| The Forest Conservation Programme |
| The Global Policy & Partnerships Units |
| The Indigenous Peoples & Conservation Initiative |
| The Marine and Coastal Programme |
| The programme on Protected Areas |
| The Antarctic Advisory Committee |
| The Social Policy Group |
| The Species Programme |
| The Strategies for Sustainability Programme |
| The Sustainable Use Initiative |
| The TRAFFIC Network |
| The Wetlands Programme |
| The World Conservation Programme |
It is possible within the different programmes to obtain up-to-date information on development tendencies, the actual condition, relevant institutions and contact persons, etc. in a number of countries. The greatest importance of the IUCN is in this connection probably the great resource of know-how available through the organisation.
Sources
The Danish Forest and Nature Protection Agency
Address
IUCN - World Headquarters
Rue Mauverney 28
CH-1196 Gland Switzerland
Tel.: +41 22 999 0001
E-mail: mail@hq.iucn.org
4.4.8 The World Trade Organisation, WTO (1995)
Purpose and Origin
The international debate on trade and the environment has obtained much political attention after the World Trade Organisation was founded in 1995. The overall objective of WTO is to ensure the greatest possible liberalisation of world trade as the promoter of global economic growth and development on a sustainable basis. The core task of WTO is to determine conditions for removal of impediments of international trade; this is a liberalisation project that can come into conflict with the desire to implement national and international adjustments (including of the trade policies) with regard to environment and human health.
Geographic Limits and Participants
As indicated by its name, the WTO is global, and all countries around the Baltic, except for Estonia and Russia, are members of the organisation.
Organisation and Decision Process
The work on trade and environment are institutionally connected to the WTO Committee for Trade and Environment (CTE). CTE was established in connection with the foundation of WTO upon strong pressure from the EU, with the task of looking into the relationship between trade-political and environmental measures and rules and on this background decide where modifications of WTO's rules are required. The Committee is open to all member countries of the WTO, and like the remaining part of the WTO system, it makes its decision by consensus. The committee has during its lifetime met 3-4 times annually, and up till today, it has not been possible to agree on recommendations for modifications to the WTO rules.
Fields of Activities and Impor tant Results
There are two central problems in the trade/environment debate: How can a liberalisation of World Trade help promoting a sustainable development, and how can it be made sure that the rules of WTO do not constitute an impediment to the society and individual countries for using the necessary instruments in environmental politics, and at the same time make sure that these are not used as instruments for hidden protectionism.
In the time, which has passed since CTE commenced its work in 1995, it has not been possible to obtain agreement on the modifications of the WTO rules, which include an important strengthening of the position of environmental consideration in world trade.This is among others due to the fact that it has not been possible to obtain approval of such modifications from the developing countries.The stagnation of the CTE negotiations is the reason why the EU is today the most eager advocate for making the trade/environment debate a central element of the new WTO trade round, which is scheduled to start on 1 January 2000.
Where a number of countries have given high priority to both continued trade liberalisation and a much better exploitation of the environment, the developing countries to a greater extent have to make a weighing of the regard to environmental protection on the one side and the population's insistent and legitimate requirements of a higher standard of living on the other side. For a great number of the developing countries, a stronger emphasis on environmental regards in WTO is considered a possible impediment for strengthening the countries' inclusion into the international trade cooperation.
Relations to the EU
As an element of the EC's external trade policy, the WTO carry out negotiations in accordance with the stipulations of the treaty, on behalf of the member countries. In the CTE negotiations, the EU has - with assistance from USA - been the mainspring behind the desire to make sure the environmental regard gets a more predominant role within international trade. The EU has given great emphasis to the adjustment of the use of trade instruments in international environmental agreements and has made a concrete proposal to modification of the related GATTrules.
Sources
Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Home page: http://www.wto.org/