|
Potential measures for reduction of releases of heavy metals, POPs, HCFCs, BFRs and industrial greenhouse gases with particular reference to Russia, Ukraine and China 5 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)5.1 PCDD/PCDFsABSTRACT Releases from waste incineration, iron ore sintering, secondary metal production and uncontrolled burning of waste are probably the main PCDD/PCDFs sources in the countries, and reduction of releases from these sources should have high priority. Measurements of PCDD/PCDFs are complicated and expensive, and there is an urgent need for actual measurements and detailed inventories documenting the need for and costs of implementation of reduction measures. PCDD/PCDF-specific air emission controls (e.g. fabric filter and carbon injection) are a prerequisite for reaching acceptable emission levels from the major source categories, and projects implementing such controls may have a significant demonstration effect. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) have never intentionally been produced, but they are formed as by-products or impurities in several industrial chemical processes as well as in most combustion processes. Historically PCDD/PCDF formation as impurity in chlorinated chemical compounds like PCP (pentachlorophenol), Agent Orange and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), was of major concern. Due to changed synthesis pathways, and the fact that the production of the chlorinated compounds concerned has ceased in most countries, the focus has changed to the formation of the compounds by combustion processes. PCDD/PCDFs are formed in combustion processes by two mechanisms: formation from precursors (e.g. PCBs) and formation by "de novo" synthesis from their basic elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine. As dioxins are unintentional by-products, substitution of dioxin furans is not an issue for reducing the releases, but the releases may be reduced by substituting the precursors for formation and chlorine in general. The substances are very toxic, lipophilic (fat-soluble) and persistent, accumulate in organisms and biomagnify in the natural food chains. The main exposure of the general population to dioxins and furans is via food products; in particular fish, meat and diary products. 5.1.1 Sources and releasesUNEP Chemicals have in order to facilitate the comparison of release inventories among countries in its toolkit for PCDD/PCDF release inventories proposed a division on the main PCDD/PCDF sources into 10 main categories - a categorisation that will be followed here (UNEP 2002). UNEP chemicals prepared in 1999 a summary of national and regional PCDD/PCDF release inventories. As illustrated in the figure below, the distribution between the different source categories varies considerably among countries. The global distribution (the bar to the right) shows that waste incineration globally accounted for about 40% of the total releases. However, most probably in many countries the releases from metallurgical processes and uncontrolled burning processes have been underestimated and not included in the inventories (uncontrolled burning processes are in the figure included in "others", but categorised as a particular source category in the UNEP toolkit). Figure 5-1 Percentage contribution per sector and country to the overall PCDD/PCDFs air emission inventory; reference year 1995 (UNEP 1999)
Until now no comprehensive inventory of dioxins sources in Russia, Ukraine or China has been undertaken. PCDD/PCDFs inventory in Poland An inventory of PCDD/PCDF emission in Poland 2002, undertaken by using the toolkit for PCDD/PCDF inventories prepared by UNEP Chemicals (UNEP 2002), may give an indication of the expected distribution among the source categories. Only releases to air and residues, the main and most well described release pathways, are shown here. The distribution among categories reflects the general global trends. Concerning releases to water and products the following two sources within source category 7 not significant in Poland should, however, be considered:
Table 5-1 Potential releases of PCDD/PCDFs from all sources in Poland in 2000 by main source categories (based on Lassen et al. 2002)
* An empty cell indicates that the release route is considered insignificant. '?' indicates that the release route may be significant, but no emission factors have been determined. A "?" after a number indicates that the number may be underestimated, as some subcategories have not been quantified due to lack of emission factors. Russia-US EPA Dioxin Inventory Programme In 1996, a co-operation partnership was initiated between Russian and North American experts and NGOs to address dioxin contamination in Russia. As part of the partnership, an inventory project was started in July 1999. The U.S. EPA has funded the project. Its main objectives were to assess the major dioxin sources in Russia, compile a database of information on dioxin contamination in Russia and draft a white paper document to set priorities for Russia in terms of source reduction and public health protection. Training programmes for Russian laboratories and experts have been carried out as part of the project. The first phase of the inventory project (July 1999 - December 2000) resulted in the estimation of emissions by different sources. According to the initial inventory, total annual dioxin emission to the air from Russian sources was estimated to be within the interval of 6,900 to 10,900 g I-TEQ with hazardous waste incineration as the major source (6,330-10,128 g I-TEQ). Metallurgical processes, uncontrolled burning of waste and a number of minor sources are not included in the inventory, and the inventory must be considered highly uncertain. ACAP Dioxin Project In Phase I of the ACAP dioxin project an inventory as well as standardized sampling and analysis protocols, assessment of relevant RF regulations and standards of dioxin sources has been undertaken in three regions of the Russia: Murmansk, Archangelsk and Komi. Phase 2 will focus on reduction of dioxin emissions from Archangelsk pulp and paper facilities by implementing Cleaner Production techniques. Cleaner Production training at selected facilities in Archangelsk is also in progress. Dioxin pollution The most urgent problems regarding dioxins in Russia have until now been pollution with dioxins within and around chemical plants producing chlorinated and brominated compounds in which dioxins and furans were present as impurities. The dioxin pollution problems in connection with the chemical industry have been studied by a number of institutions and reported on in both Russia and internationally in a large number of publications and is reviewed in the report "Status on POPs in the Russian Federation, January 2002" prepared by DANCEE (COWI 2002). Ukraine No inventory of PCDD/PCDF emission in Ukraine has been identified. An inventory is probably under development as a part of the enabling activities of the Stockholm Convention. China According to a presentation of Gaolai 2004, representative of the State Environmental Protection Administration of China (SEPA), no dioxin inventories exist in China, but chlor-alkali, metallurgy, paper making, organic chemicals production (e.g. PCP) and waste incineration are recognised as sources. Dioxin emission from production of chlorinated chemicals seems to be significant, and Yonglong (2004) provides the table below. It is not clear whether the emission volumes concerns emission from production or the total amount of PCDD/PCDFs in the produced products. In any case the PCDD/PCDFs content of PCP (pentachlorophenol) and PCP-Na (sodium pentachlorophenol), both used as preservative, is very significant even considering the size of the country. PCP has been phased out in most western countries, but is i.a. still produced in the USA using synthesizing pathways resulting in less PCDD/PCDFs formation. Table 5-2 Estimated dioxin emission from chemical production in China (Yonglong, 2004)
5.1.2 Main reduction measuresThe main technical measures can be divided into measures for reducing the formation (primary measures) and measures for reducing the releases (secondary measures) of PCDD/PCDFs. Measures for reducing the formation Formation of PCDD/PCDFs in chemical processes has in most countries been avoided by phase out of relevant substances or by changed synthesis pathways. Primary measures for reducing the formation in thermal processes, which have been implemented in European countries, included reduction of chlorine or chlorinated compounds in raw materials, products and fuels and changes in processes that may lead to formation of dioxins and furans. Measures for reduction of releases The measures for reduction of releases may be divided into measures for destruction of dioxins and furan already formed and measures for reducing the direct releases to the environment by adsorbing the dioxins and furans to the residuals. Primary measures and measures where the formed PCDD/PCDFs are destructed have higher priority than measures moving the formed PCDD/PCDFs from one media to another. PCDD/PCDFs are formed in the temperature range 250-500 °C, and a short residence time for flue gas in this temperature interval is essential for preventing the formation of PCDD/PCDFs. Main measures by source category are shown in table 5-3. A more detailed list of measures can be found in Annex V to the UNECE POPs Protocol and in the draft guidelines on BAT and BEP for substances included in Annex C of the Stockholm Convention (Expert group 2004). Table 5-3 Overview of main release reduction measures for PCDD/PCDFs
* (P): Primary measure; (S) Secondary measure (SD): Secondary measure with destruction 5.1.3 International regulation and agreementsTable 5-4 present a summarised overview of the coverage in relevant agreements of the PCDD/PCDFs release source categories. Subcategories specifically addressed in any of the agreements are indicated. The obligations of the CLRTAP-POPs protocol and the Stockholm Convention are further summarised in Annex 1. The significance of waste incineration as a PCDD/PCDFs source is reflected in the fact that specific emission limit values for this source category are set in several of the agreements. For a number of sub-categories, in the agreements considered most significant (next to waste incineration), it is specified that BAT (best available techniques) should be implemented for reduction of the PCDD/PCDFs emission. The BAT is not specifically defined, but the CLRTAP-POPs protocol lists for these subcategories a number of potential reduction measures. Application of limit values of particulate matter (PM) emission, included in the CLRTAP-HM protocol, will also reduce PCDD/PCDFs emission, as a significant part of the PCDD/PCDFs is released adsorbed to the particles. Table 5-4 Summarised overview of the coverage of PCDD/PCDFs in international agreements (binding obligations indicated in bold)
*1 Annex C Part II lists source categories with potential for comparatively high formation and releases of PCDD/PCDFs (indicated by *1). For these sources the convention requires that BAT is phased in no later than four years after enter into force of the Convention for that party. *2 Annex C Part III lists other source categories with potential for formation and releases of PCDD/PCDFs (indicated by *2). For these sources the convention requires that BAT is phased in no later than four years after enter into force of the Convention for that party. *3 Annex V of the protocol identify BAT for a number of source categories (indicated by *3). Parties shall no later than the specified timescales specified apply BAT to new stationary sources within those categories. More differentiated requirements to existing sources within the same categories. *4 The limit values of the CLRTAP- HM protocol for dust emission may imply reduced PCDD/PCDFs emission BAT: Best available techniques (in some cases combined with BEP (best environmental practices)). All limit values refer to limit of air emissions. 5.1.4 Overview of existing activitiesAn overview of identified, existing activities conducted by donor organisations and international finance institutions is presented in table 5-5 below. PCDD/PCDF specific activities are marked with "PCDD/PCDFs:" In the beginning of the text summarising each project in the table. Other projects which may affect PCDF releases, but do not focus on PCDD/PCDFs, will have no such mark. Table 5-5 Identified initiatives in Russia, Ukraine and China addressing PCDD/PCDFs releases
5.2 PCBsABSTRACT In China a large project on collection and destruction of PCB-containing equipment in selected regions is in preparation, and it is proposed to await the experience of this project, before further activities are initiated. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a class of chlorinated hydrocarbons that have been used extensively since 1930 for a variety of industrial uses. Today PCBs are most probably not produced in any country. PCBs include mobile oily liquids and hard transparent resins, depending on the degree of substitution. The value of PCBs derives from their chemical inertness, resistance to heat, non-flammability, low vapour pressure and high dielectric constancy. The compounds were used in industry as heat exchange fluids, in electric transformers and capacitors, and as additives in paint, carbonless copy paper, and plastics. PCBs consist of two benzene rings joined by a carbon-carbon bond, with chlorine atoms on any or all of the remaining 10 carbon atoms. Many of the individual PCB congeners exhibit toxic properties. PCBs rarely cause acute toxic effects, but most of the effects observed are the result of a repetitive or chronic exposure. There is growing evidence linking PCBs to reproductive and immunotoxic effects in wildlife. Effects on the liver, skin, immune system, reproductive system, gastrointestinal tract and thyroid gland of laboratory rats have been observed, and PCBs are classified as probable human cancer promoters. The PCB issue today first of all concerns collection and environmentally sound elimination of used transformer oils and PCB-containing electric equipment. Unintentional production of PCBs Apart form the intentional use of PCBs, the compounds are also found at trace levels in fossil fuels. Furthermore, PCBs are - like dioxins and HCB - formed in combustion processes. Default emission factors for emission of PCBs from different combustion processes have been developed by EMEP for use in emission inventories. The measures for reduction of releases from unintentional production of PCBs are mainly the same as for PCDDs/PCDFs and are not addressed specifically in this chapter. 5.2.1 Sources and releasesPCBs are not produced today in Russia, Ukraine or China, but are released from PCB-containing products, stockpiles and waste dumps. From transformers PCBs may be released by maintenance operations and leakage from the transformers. Capacitors are closed boxes, and PCBs are only released by corrosion of the capacitors or breakage by disposal. The production and consumption of PCBs in the Soviet Union, and the presence in equipment in use in Russia today, have been assessed in the Multilateral Co-operative Project on Phase-out of PCB Use, and Management of PCB-Contaminated Wastes in the Russian Federation (ACAP 1999; 2003). The application and consumption, which are quite well in accordance with the global PCB consumption pattern, are summarised below. PCBs in the Soviet Union PCBs were in the Soviet Union produced by two factories located in Dzerzhinsk and Novomoskovsk, Russia. During the period from 1939 to 1993 they produced a total of about 180,000 tonnes. Table 5-6 Application of PCBs in the former Soviet Union
PCBs in equipment in Russia Based on an inventory carried out within the framework of Phase 1 of the ACAP PCB project it was concluded that in Russia in year 1999 about 10,000 transformers and about 500,000 capacitors were either in operation, in reserve, or removed from operation, but not destroyed. The transformers contained about 19,000 tonnes of PCBs (Sovtol), whereas the capacitors contained about 10,000 tons of trichlorobiphenyl (TCB). The distribution of the PCB-containing equipment among branches is summarised in table 5-7. Table 5-7 Approximate distribution of PCB-containing equipment among branches in Russia (based on ACAP 2003)
An adequate system for management of PCB-containing equipment and final destruction of equipment does not exist in Russia today. PCBs in China The following information on PCBs in China is summarised from the Project Information Document and Environmental Impact Assessment for PCB sites cleanup in the Zhejiang. China prepared it as part of the project preparation of a GEF "PCB Disposal and Management Demonstration Project" (WB 2005, SEPA 2005). In China, PCBs were mainly used in electric appliances and as an additive in paint. China began to produce PCBs in 1965 and stopped in early 1974. The total production amounted to about 10,000 tons, including 9,000 tons of trichlorobiphenyl (TCP) and 1,000 tons of pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB5). PCB5 oils were mostly used in a wide variety of open systems, such as in oil paints and exterior dopes. While some wastes may remain at production or formulation facilities, it is reasonable to assume that most of this material has been released into the environment. TCP was principally used in manufacturing capacitors that were used in the electrical supply industry. An estimated 12 kg of PCB3 was used in each capacitor and, based on a production of 9,000 tonnes, it is estimated that about 750,000 PCB-containing capacitors were produced in China. However, estimates based on the installed transmission capacity in China in 1975 indicate that 1.15 million capacitors would have been required, suggesting that as many as 400,000 PCB-containing capacitors were imported into China. If this estimate were correct, then an estimated 4,000-4,500 tonnes of TCP oils would have been imported with this equipment, so that a total of 13,000-13,500 tonnes of TCP would have been introduced into China as a result of the manufacture and import of capacitors. Transformers containing PCB oils were never produced in China, but an unknown number was imported. While 30 PCB-containing transformers have so far been found and disposed of, there is no basis to estimate how many PCB-containing transformers may remain in China, either in service or in storage for disposal. Since the lifetime of capacitors made in China is estimated to be 15 years, it follows that most of the 1.15 million PCB-containing capacitors have now been retired from service. Some specialized transformers were imported into China in the 1970s and 1980s, and their lifetime is expected to be 25-40 years. Therefore approximately 1 million capacitors and an unknown number of transformers are in storage and on disposal sites throughout China. During the 1980s, pieces of electrical equipment taken out of service were collected at temporary storage sites prior to disposal in accordance with the requirements proposed by relevant Ministries. Surveys and investigations conducted in recent years indicate that discarded PCB-containing equipment remain in some temporary storage facilities. Few of the sites were recorded on files and many of those for which file details have been found are no longer marked on the ground. An adequate system for management of PCB-containing equipment and final destruction of equipment does not exist in China today, but a new large GEF financed project will address these issues. PCBs in Ukraine An inventory in 2003 undertaken as part of the Stockholm Convention enabling activities based on enquiries to 5000 enterprises identified 960 PCB-containing transformers in Ukraine, of which 760 were still in use, the remaining being stored (Sukhoreba 2004). In total 92,500 capacitors were identified, of these 70,000 in use. Engineering industry and metallurgy were the main sectors with 576 and 900 tonnes PCBs in the hold equipment respectively. 5.2.2 Main reduction measuresIntentional use of PCB The main reduction measures for reduction of releases of PCBs are listed in table 5-8. Table 5-8 Overview of main release reduction measures for PCBs
Unintentional production of PCB PCBs is formed unintentionally by the same processes and mechanisms as PCDD/PCDFs and the measures mentioned for PCDD/PCDFs also apply to PCBs. The driving force for implementation of the measures will usually be PCDD/PCDF release reduction, with PCB release reduction as a desirable side-effect. 5.2.3 International regulation and agreementsTable 5-9 presents a summarised overview of the coverage in relevant agreements concerning PCB. The obligations of the CLRTAP-POPs protocol and the Stockholm Convention are further summarised in Annex 1. Table 5-9 Summarised overview of the coverage of intentionally used PCBs in relevant agreements
*1 For countries in transitions no later than 31 Dec 2005 *2 For countries in transition no later than 31 Dec 2020 *3 For countries in transition no later than 31 Dec 2015 *4 Phase out and destroy PCBs by the end of 1999 at the latest, for Iceland and the Contracting Parties which are riparian to the North Sea; by the end of 2010 at the latest, for the remaining Contracting Parties. (PARCOM DECISION 92/3) '*5 Prohibition of the use in the Baltic Sea area its catchment area is included as a binding obligation of the Helsinki Convention. 5.2.4 Overview of existing activitiesAn overview of identified, existing activities conducted by donor organisations and international finance institutions is presented in table 5-5 below. Table 5-10 Identified initiatives in Russia, Ukraine and China addressing PCBs management and releases
5.3 HCBABSTRACT Further HCB is unintentionally produced by some specific chemical and metallurgical processes. HCB is, when certain techniques are applied, produced as by-product by the production of chlorinated solvents, chlorinated aromatics and pesticides, by production of aluminium and magnesium and by production of chlor-alkali. The measures for reduction of HCB releases are changed production processes. Comprehensive inventories of HCB formation and releases in Russia, Ukraine and China have not been identified, and it is not known to what extent the processes specifically forming HCB are used. The first step in the awareness raising and identification of priory measures may be to assist Russia in undertaking a detailed HCB inventory. The obtained information would also be relevant for other countries from the former Soviet Union. HCB is in China used for production of PCP (pentachlorophenol), which today has been phased out in most countries because of the presence of PCDD/PCDFs as impurity, and because PCP acts as a precursor for PCDD/PCDFs formation. Phase-out of PCP production consequently addresses more of the POPs. Alternatives to the use of PCP for wood preservation are readily available Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), consisting of a benzene ring with six chlorine atoms, does not occur naturally. It is both produced intentionally and unintentionally by anthropogenic processes, and both the intentional and unintentional production have been addressed by international agreements. HCB was formerly used extensively as a seed dressing to prevent fungal disease on grains, but this use was discontinued in most western countries in the 1970s. The use of HCB as pesticide has continued in some countries, among these China, until today. The use of HCB as pesticide is included in section 2.4 on POPs pesticides. HCB is a highly persistent environmental toxin. It undergoes long-range transport in the atmosphere and bioaccumulates in fish, marine animals, birds, and animals that feed on fish. HCB accumulates significantly in the fatty tissues and is resistant to biodegradation. The primary route of exposure for the general population is dietary ingestion of foods that contain residue levels of HCB. HCB is toxic by all routes of exposure. Both the US EPA and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have listed HCB as a possible carcinogen for humans. Acute high-dose exposures can lead to kidney and liver damage, central nervous system excitation and seizures, circulatory collapse and respiratory depression. Chronic low-dose exposures may damage a developing foetus, cause cancer, lead to kidney damage, liver damage and fatigue, and cause skin irritation. Unintentional formation and emissions of HCB result from the same type of thermal processes as those emitting PCDD/PCDF, and HCB is formed by a similar mechanism. Measures for PCDD/PCDF releases reduction consequently also reduce HCB releases. In Denmark, specific reduction of HCB releases has not been on the agenda, and no detailed description of HCB formation and releases in Denmark has been undertaken. A short survey from 1995 concludes that the release of HCB is insignificant, but the survey included intentional uses only (Hansen 1995). For a comprehensive description of HCB sources, environmental fate and risk characterisation, see Jones 2005. 5.3.1 Sources and releasesUse of HCB The use of HCB as pesticide is included in section 5.4. The draft Basel Convention guidelines mention that HCB is used as a chemical intermediate in the manufacture of other substances (Basel 2005). According to the guidelines it is believed that these chemical intermediate applications have ceased in most countries except for China and Russia. HCB has in western counties been used as a peptising agent in the production of nitroso and styrene rubbers for use in vehicle tyres. Other uses as a chemical intermediate have included the manufacture of certain dyestuffs, the production of pentachlorophenol and the production of aromatic fluorocarbons. In Russia HCB is still used in pyrotechnical compounds (Jones 2005). Formation of HCB HCB is unintentionally formed in a number of processes, of which the main process seems to be (Environment Canada 2005; Jones 2005; Bailey 2001, GLBTS. 2000):
The US draft national action plan for HCB mentions manufacturing of silicone products as the major source of HCB emission in the USA, but this source category is not mentioned in other assessments and reports (US EPA 2000). Atmospheric releases Annual atmospheric emission of HCB in Europe, USA and globally is shown in table 5-11. Globally, non-ferrous metal industry, waste incineration and pesticide use are the major sources. Table 5-11 Annual atmospheric emission of HCB in Europe, USA and globally (based on Jones 2005)
*1 Source: Berdowski et al. 1997. *2 Source: Bailey 2001. HCB as by-product in chemical industry Organic chemical industry accounts globally for about 6% of the atmospheric emission, but this source category may regionally be more significant depending on the presence of the relevant industry. Besides the direct atmospheric release significant unaccounted releases may occur from waste products. HCB is formed as byproduct and/or impurity in several chemical processes, such as the manufacture of chlorinated solvents, chlorinated aromatics and pesticides (Jones 2005). Jones (2005) refers that in the USA from 1980 to 1983 approximately 4,130 tonnes HCB were generated annually as a waste product and 3,178 tonnes of this was produced from the manufacture of perchlorethylene, trichloroetylene and tetrachloride. Similar data are referred from Germany and Japan. Compared with the total atmospheric emission in table 5-11, which is in the order of magnitude of 1000 times lower, the data indicate that the releases via waste streams may be significant. The fate of the HCB in the waste is highly dependent on whether the waste is treated by incineration of dumped in landfills. Since the 1980s, HCB levels in products have decreased dramatically, at least in Western countries. Russian Federation HCB is reported to be used in Russia as feedstock for pyrotechnical compounds used by the Army (Jones 2005). No information on HCB releases in Russia by source categories has been identified. China HCB is in China according to UNIDO/GEF (2003) produced in quantities of 1000-10000 t/year. HCB is not used as pesticide in China. In China, HCB is mainly used as the chemical mediate of pentachlorophenol (PCP) and sodium pentachlorophenate (PCP-Na), and something which in the report is designated "chemical dissolvent and other chemical assistant" (UNIDO/GEF 2003). The usages in different purposes of HCB need according to UNIDO/GEF a thorough survey. PCP and PCP-Na are in general used as disinfectant for wood and textile preservation and have been phased out in most western countries. As shown in chapter 5.1.1 on PCDD/PCDFs the annual releases of PCDD/PCDFs by production of PCP and PCP-Na in China are very significant. The applied synthesis pathway using HCB result in significantly higher formation of PCDD/PCDFs than other pathways applied e.g. in the USA, which is one of the few western countries still producing PCP. Ukraine The Basel Convention draft technical guidelines in HCB (Basel 2005) mentions without reference that there are in the World at least two identified stockpiles of over 10,000 tonnes of waste HCB from past production of chlorinated solvents, in particular perchloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethylene. One of these is in Ukraine. No further information on the issue has been identified. 5.3.2 Main reduction measuresFor the discussion of reduction measures it is relevant to distinguish between unintentional formation from combustion and other thermal processes and formation by other processes; first of all chemical processes. Combustion and other thermal processes HCB is formed unintentionally by the same thermal processes and mechanisms as PCDD/PCDFs, and the measures mentioned for PCDD/PCDFs in table 5-3 also apply to HCB. The driving force for implementation of the measures would usually be PCDD/PCDF release reduction, with HCB release reduction as a desirable side-effect. HCB formed as by-product/impurity by the production of chlorine and chlorinated chemicals can be reduced by process changes. Such measures have been implemented with success the last two decades and as mentioned above resulted in a dramatic reduction of the formation. When formed, the release of HCB from the waste can be reduced by adequate waste management, e.g. hazardous waste incineration. Great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy (GLBTS 2000) has identified a number of measures for reduction of the formation and releases of HCB from both thermal and chemical processes. The proposed measures, as regards production of chemicals in table 5-12, are based on this assessment. Table 5-12 Overview of main release reduction measures for HCB
5.3.3 International regulation and agreementsTable 5-13 presents a summarised overview of the coverage in relevant agreements of the HCB release source categories. Subcategories specifically addressed in any of the agreements are indicated. The source categories developed by UNEP for PCDD/PCDF emission have been used. The obligations of the CLRTAP-POPs protocol and the Stockholm Convention are further summarised in Annex 1. Both instruments include HCB in a group of unintentionally produced substances including PCDD/PCDFs and PCBs, and stipulate requirements for the group of substances as a whole. None of the agreements mention measures specifically addressing unintentionally produced HCB, and for this reason the specific sources mentioned in the previous sectors (e.g. aluminium and magnesium production) are not mentioned specifically in the table. HCB is not specifically addressed by any OSPAR or HELCOM recommendation or decision. HCB is not included in the OSPAR list of substances of possible concern, but included in the OSPAR 1998 list of candidates for selection, assessment and prioritisation. HCB is included in the HELCOM list of selected substances for immediate priority action. Agreements concerning the use of HCB as a pesticide are included in section 5.4. Table 5-13 Summarised overview of the coverage of unintentionally produced HCB in international agreements (binding obligations indicated in bold)
*1 Annex C Part II lists source categories with potential for comparatively high formation and releases of PCDD/PCDFs, PCBs and HCB (indicated by *1). For these sources the convention requires that BAT is phased in no later than four years after enter into force of the Convention for that party. *2 Annex C Part III lists other source categories with potential for formation and releases of PCDD/PCDFs, PCBs and HCB (indicated by *2). For these sources the convention requires that BAT is phased in no later than four years after enter into force of the Convention for that party. *3 Annex V of the protocol identify BAT for a number of source categories (indicated by *3). Parties shall no later than the specified timescales specified apply BAT to new stationary sources within those categories. More differentiated requirements to existing sources within the same categories. *4 The limit values of the CLRTAP- HM protocol for dust emission may imply reduced PCDD/PCDFs emission *5 Avoiding halogenated scavengers is in the CLRTAP POPs protocol more specifically described as a PCDD/PCDFs emission control, but may also reduce HCB emission. BAT: Best available techniques (in some cases combined with BEP (best environmental practices)) 5.3.4 Overview of existing activitiesAn overview of identified, existing activities conducted by donor organisations and international finance institutions specifically addressing HCB releases is presented in table 5.14 below. It has not been possible to identify any projects specifically addressing non-pesticidal HCB use. This reflects the fact that the HCB releases in general is considered a less important issue than PCBs and PCDD/PCDFs. As HCB is released from the same sources as PCDD/PCDFs, all projects described in the PCDD/PCDFs section will also have relevance to HCB. Table 5-14 Identified initiatives in Russia, Ukraine and China addressing HCB releases (apart from pesticides uses)
5.4 POPs pesticidesABSTRACT Nine pesticides are included in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, in the following designated the POPs pesticides. The POPs pesticides are all toxic persistent substances. They bioaccumulate in fatty tissues in the food chain and are transported over long distances in the atmosphere. The pesticides included in the Stockholm Convention are the following:
Besides these pesticides the UNECE POPs protocol includes two pesticides: chlordecone and lindane (99% gamma HCH, hexachlorocyclohexane). Most of the POP pesticides are banned or subject to restrictions in most countries today. However, the use of particularly DDT, chlordane, mirex and heptachlor is still reported. The POP pesticides have mainly been used for control of disease-carrying insects and for protection of crops, buildings and constructions against pests. 5.4.1 Sources and releasesRussia At present POP pesticides are not produced in Russia. Production of DDT was discontinued in 1998. The production facilities still exist and may resume production of DDT in quantities needed for disease vector control (malaria) in accordance with the provisions of the Stockholm Convention on POPs. Production and use would be under strict control of environmental protection, health and other authorities. DDT was, and still is, considered a strategic military chemical in many countries that might have to operate in a tropical climate. Table 5-15 Production, import and use of POPs pesticides in Russia (Based on COWI 2002)
The recorded use of hexachlorobenzene was 7,000 tonnes in 1987 against 15,000 tonnes in 1981. The Russian authorities have estimated the use of DDT at 1,300 tonnes in 1981, down from 12,000 tonnes in 1970. In 1988 it was permitted to use 126 tonnes of DDT and 333 tonnes hexachlorobenzene for disease vector control (COWI 2002). Releases of POPs pesticides to the environment today are primarily generated though in-secured stockpiles of obsolete pesticides (OP). Stockpiles of obsolete pesticides in Russia and Ukraine are shown in table 5-16. New experience indicates that the volumes may quite well be underestimated. Table 5-16 Estimated amounts (tonnes) of OPs, POPs (including PCBs) and hazardous waste in general based on extrapolation of obsolete pesticide data (DANCEE 2004)
Notes (as in DANCEE 2004): *1: The POPs fraction is for selected CEE countries positively identified to be between 20-30% of identified obsolete pesticides. A median value of 25% is used for the calculation. Added hereto actual known amount of PCBs generated from various DANCEE financed studies and mass flow calculations. *2: Based on information from three independent sources of expertise, obsolete pesticides are estimated to provide approx. 0.01% of the anticipated total amount of hazardous waste in selected (Ukraine and Russia) countries. Figures in () are the estimated amount based on a 0.01% fraction of obsolete pesticides in relation to the total hazardous waste. *3: The figure is officially announced and is from 1998. The figure includes class 1-3 waste equal to EU classified “toxic waste”. *4: The figure is officially announced and is from 1999. The figure includes class 1-3 waste equal to EU classified “toxic waste”. China The POPs pesticide situation in China is summarised in a background document for the Project Brief for the GEF financed Stockholm Enabling Activities project (UNIDO/GEF 2003). Table 5-17 gives an overview of the situation, although the presentation is somewhat inconsistent and difficult to interpret. Four of the POPs pesticides are still used in China: DDT, HCB, chlordane and mirex. DDT is used for disease (malaria) vector control and has been prohibited for use in agriculture since 1983. HCB is not used as pesticide in China. In China, HCB is mainly used as the chemical mediate of pentachlorophenol and sodium pentachlorophenate, and something which in the report is designated "chemical dissolvent and other chemical assistant" (UNIDO/GEF 2003). The usages in different purposes of HCB need according to UNIDO/GEF a thorough survey. The use and reduction measures are further described in section 5.3.1. Chlordane and Mirex are used for termite control. Contrary to the situation on Russia and Ukraine, stockpiles of obsolete pesticides seem not to have been an issue in China, and no information on stockpiles have been available. However, stockpiles of obsolete pesticides may be widespread as indicated by UNIDO: "Considering less sound management and treatment capacity, it could be deduced tentatively that a lot of stockpiles or waste of pesticidal POPs still remained across the China." (UNIDO/GEF 2003). Table 5-17 Pesticidal POPs in China (UNIDO/GEF 2003)
Note: "--" denotes no detailed data, and the sources and notes are in the footnotes and text Ukraine Obsolete pesticide stocks in Ukraine is shown in table 5-16. 5.4.2 Main release reduction measuresThe main measures for reducing the releases of POPs pesticides to the environment are listed in table 5-18. Only the use of DDT, Chlordane and Mirex is mentioned, because these are the only POPs pesticides used in the countries addressed. The substances cannot simply be replaced by the use of other substances; there is a need for alternative strategies for pest and vector management. It is beyond the limits of this report to review all these different management options, but reference is made to UNEP (2000) and Mörner et al. (2000). Table 5-18 Overview of main measure for reduction of release from production, use and stockpiles of POPs pesticides
5.4.3 International regulation and agreementsTable 5-19 presents a summarised overview of the coverage in relevant agreements of the POPs pesticides. Binding agreements are indicated in bold. The obligations of the CLRTAP-POPs protocol and the Stockholm Convention are further summarised in Annex 1. Both instruments aim at eliminating the production and use of the substances, but list a number of exemptions. The Stockholm Convention includes more exemptions than the POPs Protocol reflecting the fact that more of the pesticides have essential applications in developing countries in tropical areas, for which substitution is not straightforward. A register is established for identifying Parties that have specific exemptions and all exemptions shall expire five years after the data of entry into force of the Convention. The POPs protocol includes two substances, chlordecone and HCH (linadane), not included in the Stockholm Convention. The Parties to the Stockholm Convention agreed, however, May 2005 that HCH and chlordecone should be considered for possible inclusion on the convention's list. The Helsinki Convention (July 2004 version with amendments) stipulates that Parties shall prohibit DDT for all uses (except for drugs). For a list of pesticides including the POPs pesticides (except mirex and HCB) the Parties "shall endeavour to minimize and, whenever possible, to ban the use" in the Baltic Sea Area and its catchment area. Mirex and HCB are included in the HELCOM list of substances for immediate priority action. The HELCOM list includes also a number of pesticides not covered by the Stockholm Convention and the POPs protocol. The HELCOM recommendations regarding procedures for approval of pesticides in the catchment area of the Baltic Sea indirectly set up procedures that would imply that the POPs pesticides most probably could not be approved for use (HELCOM recommendations 20/2). None of the substances are included in the OSPAR list of chemicals for priority action, but are all included in the OSPAR 1998 list of candidates for selection, assessment and prioritisation. Table 5-19 Summarised overview of the coverage of POPs pesticides in international agreements
*1 Eliminate by entry into force of the protocol. *2 Eliminate production within one year of consensus by the parties that suitable alternatives are available. '3* Restricted use for public health protection from diseases such as malaria encephalitis: Use allowed only as a component of an integrated pest management strategy and only to the extent necessary and only until one year after the date of the elimination of production. As a chemical intermediate to produce Dicofol: Such use shall be reassessed no later than two years after the date of entry into force of the present Protocol (Dicofol is a organochlorine acaricide (a chemical that kills mites) that is structurally similar to DDT. *4 A register is established for the purpose of identifying Parties that have specific exemptions. *5 Parties shall endeavour to minimize and, whenever possible, to ban the use of the substances as pesticides in the Baltic Sea Area and its catchment area. *6 Not specifically covered by the Convention, but the substances may indirectly be addressed by the recommendation regarding procedures for approval of pesticides. *7 "PARCOM Decision to Phase Out the Use of Aldrin, Dieldrin and Endrin" (1985) has been revoked of OSPAR Convention Parties (OSPAR Decision 98/1). 5.4.4 Overview of existing activitiesAn overview of identified, existing activities conducted by donor organisations and international finance institutions specifically addressing POPs pesticides is presented in table 5-20 below. Table 5-20 Identified initiatives in Russia, Ukraine and China addressing POPs pesticides
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
