In 1992, the European Commission adopted a regulation on a Community eco-label award scheme, (1). This Regulation established a voluntary eco-label scheme intending to:

	promote the design, production, marketing and use of products which have a reduced environmental impact during their entire life cycle;
	provide consumers with better information on the environmental impact of products.

This scheme is part of a more market oriented policy approach consistent with the principles and objectives of the fifth EC environmental action programme.

Under the Community eco-label scheme, an eco-label may be awarded to products which are in compliance with specific ecological criteria for the corresponding product groups (1), (2).

This study was initiated in 1993 following the introduction of this EU-Scheme for eco-labelling of products. The goal of the study was to provide a survey of the different methodologies for development of criteria for 12 product groups. The 12 selected product groups were the first studies of the start of the scheme.

Within the last 6 years several attempts have been done to develop general guidelines for establishing criteria for eco-labelling. Thus, the Groupe des Sages has in 1997 published a second edition of "Guidelines for the application of life cycle assessment in the EU eco-label award scheme" (2). However, those attempts are still not to be regarded as the final methodological approach.

The present work is not meant as a general guideline on how to set up criteria for eco-labelling. It is meant to be a presentation of the great variety in methodologies, form of presentation, use of databases etc. performed in the 12 different studies on setting up criteria. All studies are among the first that were performed. Thereby it might contribute to the work which takes place now on establishing of criteria as well as generel guidelines for establishing of criteria. Further, the work may contribute to the revision of the EU-labelling regulation.

1.1 Background

A survey of some methods and data used is elaborated for the product groups of which criteria has been adopted. These studies are¹:

Washing machines (UK)(3)², dish washers (UK)(4)¹, soil improvers (UK)(5), light bulbs (UK)(6), hairspray (UK)(7), paints and varnishes (F)(8), refrigerators (I)(9)³, freezers (I)(10)²⁾, detergents (D)(11), kitchen rolls (DK)(12)⁴⁾, toilet paper (DK)(13)³⁾, copying paper (DK)(14)³⁾, T-shirts and bed linen (DK)(15)⁵⁾.

The subject of this study has been a moving target. When the study was initiated (1993) one of the intensions was to map what has been done in the eco-labelling studies. A group of experts, the Groupe des Sages, first developed one set of guidelines on how to establish eco-labelling criteria for product groups. These guidelines also included considerations of the matter of how to apply LCA methodology to eco-labelling. Later (1997) the guidelines (2) were further developed. More projects aiming at establishing of eco-labelling criteria were initiated (long) before the guidelines of the Groupe des Sages were established. To some extend one can argue, that the initiation of the work of the Groupe des Sages was because of the different eco-labelling studies or rather because it was evident, that each study - most of them claiming to use the same set of (SETAC) guidelines, that later became the "Code of Practise" (16) - developed different methodologies.

While it presumably never will be totally solved if these differences were because of cultural differences or general uncertainty on what to do, there is no doubt that the combination of a rather new and at that moment not fully developed LCA methodology and a new EU eco-labelling scheme gave rise to different interpretations. This was just further underlined because the "establishing-of-criteria"-studies also have specific needs, e.g. inclusion of market survey, definition of product group that are not dealt with in traditional LCA methodology. In addition to this it has taken - and still takes - some time to decide which scientific degree that is actually sufficient to decide on good and relevant eco-labelling criteria.

Just to add to this complexity, the comprehensive studies of Inventory reports and Life cycle screening and the proposals for criteria which were presumed to be the basis for the final adopted criteria for each product group were for many products modified, and criteria proposed as a part of the research work were often revised before the final adoption.

Because of the changing and developing situation over a period from 1993 to 1999 the concept of this present study has been revised several times. From the aim of mapping what has been done to critical discussion of specific eco-labelling studies to an overall survey of the first seven years with EU eco-labelling scheme in the perspective of LCA methodology. A survey performing a little of each of the (critical) directions ending in a fruitful discussion and recommendations for future eco-labelling work.

Thus, in the beginning the aim of the study was to perform a quick review of the background material for all 12 product groups in order to perform a survey. The survey should examine similarities and differences concerning the basis provided for design of criteria from these studies. Especially the survey should focus on the LCA methodological aspects e.g. inclusion or exclusion of different life cycle phases, system boundaries, data quality and inclusion of impact assessment. In order to identify relevant aspects detailed reviews were performed for three studies: Soil improvers, Light bulbs and Refrigerators. In the following the survey of these 3 studies will be titled "The Prestudy".

The idea performing the Prestudy was to obtain information on a number of issues within 3 general areas (LCA methodological aspects, horizontal aspects and data aspects) and this information would appear useful when identifying aspects to be investigated for the remaining 9 studies. In fact the Prestudy did reveal a number of important aspects. These are dealt with in the survey of the remaining studies.

1.2 Further analysis on the basis of the Prestudy

The experience of the Prestudy proved that the methodology used for the survey of the 3 studies (Soil improvers, Refrigerators and Light bulbs) was not one adequate method to examine eco-labelling studies of the remaining product groups. There were several reasons for this point. Firstly, the background reports did not necessarily have the presumed linkage to the final criteria as anticipated. For several product groups the final criteria were developed on the basis of extended studies. Thus, the analysis of the first published LC-screening reports did only contain parts of the relation to the criteria adopted later. Secondly, the effort to standardise studies linked to a well-defined schedule turned out to be very difficult without being able to state any of the methods used as being right or wrong and at the same time without being able to identify strong similarities. Thirdly, however useful the very detailed survey of the different reports showed to be extremely time consuming compared to the factual output.

In order to do a short cut in the project without losing the hard earned experiences, the opposite approach has been taken for the remaining studies:

The criteria adopted for the scheme have been used as a starting point. The reason is that the criteria are the result of the entire work and the criteria are the basis for environmental improvements caused by the labelling system. The quality of the criteria conducts the environmental benefits. Therefore, the study has to focus on the kind of facts (environmental data and linkages between functional unit, environmental impact, fitness for use) which creates the best basis for development of criteria or in other words: the aim with the analysis of the remaining product groups is to uncover links between the background studies and the design of criteria. An optimal situation will be if the identified limits, short cuts etc. provide an easier development of future criteria.

The succes or quality of a set of criteria can be described as the possibility of the criteria to promote cleaner technology or/and cleaner products within the scheme of eco-labelling. However, the effect of a set of criteria does not start before the criteria are adopted to the scheme. In fact the effect does not start before adopted criteria are used and manufactures apply for the label. In few cases this last act actually has never happened. The criteria shall be acceptable for the interested parties (industries, NGO’s, competent bodies) and at the same time promote cleaner technology and cleaner products. The property of criteria to cover these sometimes conflicting demands at the same time has not been an easy spot in all cases. This is one reason why the adopted criteria in some cases are far from the criteria proposed in the draft reports.

1.3 Guidance for the reader

In the following the contents of the report is presented. The presentation is at the same time a guide for how to read the report.

Chapter 2 "Methodological aspects - Vocabulary" is a short introduction to the conceptions, activities and routines linked to the cradle to grave analysis as a basis for design of criteria for eco-labelling of products. The chapter forms a basis for understanding of the wording in the rest of the report. In the chapter an explanation is presented about the vocabulary used. The horizontal aspects are divided in items like energy, transportation, cleaning procedures (in manufacturing systems), packaging, waste handling, recovery and use, emission, connection to public plants, semi-products, and control methods. The data aspects are divided in several subgroups. These are the identification of the use of different data bases, the different ways of using these sources, input on raw materials, energy, on to some extent the assessment of environmental loadings and the use of environmental and health data.

Chapter 3 "Methodological aspects from the Prestudy" is a summary of the Prestudy presenting the methodological key issues considered in the background studies of freezers, soil improvers and light bulbs. The focus is set on the central concepts linked to LCA methodology (fitness for use, functional unit, goal definition and scoping, inventory methodology etc.). The main conclusions from the Prestudy are identified and discussed. This is followed by a short presentation of the handling of central aspect in the other 9 reports. Thereafter there is a discussion of advantages or disadvantages of different approaches.

The main aspects in the Prestudy is the methodological aspects. Also horizontal and data aspects are considered.

These 3 types of aspects are not totally separated; this is the case when assessing the impacts of energy consumption including selection of data on emission factors from energy production. In the description of the individual aspects it is therefore noted when an aspect overlaps with other aspects.

Chapter 4 "Comparison with other selected studies" summarises the remaining 9 studies. Special efforts of comparison are done with respect to the goal and scoping issues (fitness for use, functional unit, purpose of the study and product definition) while less efforts are done with respect to impact assessment. For the goal and scoping aspects it is described if and how the specific issue is raised under each specific ecolabelling study. For the impact assessment methods for identification of environmental key features are considered for the most relevant studies. All the way through the chapter the influence of the discussed aspects to the later criteria establishment are considered.

Chapter 5 "Methodological aspects analysed on the basis of the adopted criteria" discusses the results of chapter 4 across the different product groups. Criteria design, the relation between criteria and life cycle screening, the life cycle phase that the criteria are related to, cleaner technology aspects linked to the criteria, source basis for criteria and the basis for levels are discussed. Specific and general patterns are identified.

Chapter 6 "Features of criteria of the established product groups" discuss the items given in chapter 5 "Methodological aspects analysed on the basis of the adopted criteria". Thus, the aspects in question are criteria design, relation between design of criteria and the LS-screening, identification of Life cycle phases, cleaner technology and cleaner products aspects, source basis for criteria and the basis level for the criteria. To some extent chapter 6 "Features of criteria of the established product groups" appoints how the patterns identified in chapter 5 can be applied in future development of criteria and to what degree a revision of the EU eco-labelling scheme can improve the work of eco-labelling.

Chapter 7 "Discussion and future development of criteria" is the concluding chapter. In the chapter the overall conclusions and discussions are outline. This outline is followed by detailed discussions on special relevant aspects, like:

	demands of transparancy
	identification of key features
	demands for standardisation of environmental elements
	links between product group definition and functional unit
	fitness for use and environmental key features
	links between product group definition and functional unit
	standardisation of horizontal elements
	the role of consensus oriented discussions
	the range of eco-labelling as an environmental regulation tool
	products’ suitability for eco-labelling

The chapter conclude with som final views of future development of criteria.

¹ The letters after each product group refers to the country being responsible for the development of criteria for the specific product group. [Back]