Assessment of Criteria Development within the EU Eco-labelling Scheme
2. Methodological aspects - Vocabulary
The procedure for eco-labelling of products under the labelling scheme managed by the
European Commission, includes 6 phases:
Table 2.1
Phase |
Task |
Subtask |
Phase 1 |
Preliminary phase (incl. product group selection) |
|
Phase 2 |
Market survey |
|
Phase 3 |
Inventory |
Goal Definition and Scoping Inventory Analysis |
Phase 4 |
Environmental Impact Assessment |
Impact Assessment Proposals for Criteria Setting |
Phase 5 |
Setting of Criteria |
|
Phase 6 |
Presentation of Draft Proposal for a Commission Decision |
|
(17)
Just like LCA, criteria development can be characterised as an iterative process. New knowledge in one phase has an impact on conclusions in other phases. The phases are therefore not necessarily finished in succession.
The aspects considered here are related to the method of applying LCA screening for establishing of criteria for eco-labelling, i.e. how to establish key features without a comprehensive inventory and a complete assessment of the impacts related to emissions and consumption of resources. Even if methods vary in different studies it is clear, that the elements described somewhat detailed below do form a part of each of the studies in one way or the other.
The studies are usually performed by national consultants from the member countries. The reports containing inventory and proposals for design of criteria are discussed by an Ad Hoc Working Group (AHWG). An AHWG consists of representatives of industrial organisations commerce, NGO’s (consumer and environmentalists), competent bodies from the member countries and officials from the Commission. This AHWG has for some product groups been rather powerful and reflects the potential conflicts between different groups of the society.
Later in this chapter concepts which are frequently used in this study are shortly explained and their relevance briefly described.
2.1 Inventory
2.1.1 Goal definition and scoping
The description of the different approaches in the Prestudy is made by going through of a number of specific items:
2.1.2 Product group definition
The idea of the eco-labelling scheme is to compare different products within the same product group to each other with respect to environmental loading. Therefore the definition of a product group is very important. Many products have more functions or a function can be fulfilled by different product groups. The inclusion or exclusion of specific products has to be adressed.
In several studies the product groups are defined but there are some variation concerning how narrow the definitions are.
2.1.3 System boundaries
The setting of the system boundaries may have great impact on the results of a LCA. Therefore, it has been relevant to survey how these boundaries have been set up in different studies and the reasons for the choices.
The setting up of system boundaries includes a definition of what part of the life cycle that are taken into account in the study. Examples of life cycle steps that are included in some cases and not in others are production of auxiliary chemicals, manufacturing of the machinery used for the production, or extraction and processing of crude oil subsequently used for the production of synthetic polymers.
Another important parameter that is included in the choice of system boundaries is the scale of environmental parameters which is included, i.e. whether transport, sewage treatment and wastehandling issues are included.
2.1.4 Environmental fields
One part of the discussions about the system boundaries is whether local, regional and/or global environmental issues are included.
The environmental fields that have to be taken into account are broadly defined in the matrix in Annex I of the Council Regulation (1).
There are, however, differences as to which effects on environment and health (e.g. destruction of the ozone layer or human cancer caused by substances emitted to the air) different studies are dealing with. This might be due to the fact that the effects caused by different products are not alike, but also due to the fact that the judging of the relative importance of different effects are not alike. Similarly, some studies include occupational health whereas this aspect is not included in other studies. A survey of the impacts that the different studies are dealing with, including a discussion of where and why differences occur, was therefore performed in the Prestudy.
2.1.5 Functional unit
The data obtained in the inventory usually should be compared through a functional unit. The methods and arguments for choosing or not choosing a functional unit in the studies is presented and discussed.
2.1.6 Establishment of key features
When an inventory has given data for input and output in the life cycle of a product the next step in the process normally is to point out the features that are most important from an environmental and health point of view. The establishment of such key features (i.e. a number of consumption and emission parameters) is the first step in selecting which parameters the criteria will deal with. Therefore it is essential to survey the methods used for establishing key features.
2.1.7 Inventory data
In the inventory part of the LCA as in- and output data are collected. This means consumption of energy and raw materials and emissions of pollutants and waste. The collected data appears to be both qualitative, semi-quantitative as well as quantitative, and the degree of specification of the input and output varies. The methods for choosing the level of data of the inventory has been surveyed in the Prestudy.
2.1.8 Process flow-charts
One of the best way to present the components of a system is to develop a flow-chart showing how the sub-systems are interlinked. Some care is needed in the construction of the flow-charts. Sometimes a general form of the system is presented. This might very well be an over-simplification of the reality which makes it difficult to use (i.e. too many flows or points are missing). Another, most likely possibility is that the flow-chart gets too detailed. A too detailed flow chart does not necessesarily reveal the relevant informa-tion since it makes it difficult to distinguish important issues from less important. Therefore the use of flow-charts and how they are used is described in the Prestudy.
2.1.9 Allocation procedures
Establishing of eco-labelling criteria is a very practical matter. This is also true when it comes to the application procedures. In many eco-labelling studies it has been revealed to be an important matter to consider to which extent a parameter is influenced by connection to public plants, recycling etc. It is also an important matter when a factory e.g. produces both products that are eco-labelled and products that are not or produces co-products.
Therefore part of the present study has been to reveal what kind of allocation procedures have been used when allocation rules have been needed.
2.1.10 Impact assessment
In general, LCA-impact assessment contains 3 steps:
 | Classification - the process of assignment and initial aggregation of inventory data to relatively homogenous problem types (e.g. greenhouse gases or ozone depletion compounds) within the larger impact categories (i.e. human and ecological health and resource depletion). |
| Characterisation of system input and output according to their relevant impact factors, e.g. global warming potential (GWP). Impact factors are coefficients which can be used to translate a particular entry into a quantitative contribution to an impact category. Multiple impacts can be aggregated and converted into common units (impact descriptors) based on a common mechanism of action or other common features. The units are impact equivalents related to a standard substance, e.g. CO2-equivalents. An impact score and profile can be compiled from the quantified contributions to the impact categories. The different entries of the impact profile may also contain qualitative entries ("flags") denoting aspects which could not be quantified into an impact score. Sometimes these impact equivalents are brought in perspective by normalisation. In this way, effect scores of the environmental profile are related to the total magnitude of the impact category in a given area and time period. Normalised effect scores may constitute a better basis for comparison. |
| Valuation - the assignment of relative values or weights to different impacts to allow decision makers to assimilate and consider the full range of relevant impacts. |
Differences in approaches applied in the studies have occured both in each of the three steps and in the way the steps are combined. There have also been differences in the way the selection of key features has been combined with impact assessment. All approaches have been reviewed.
Differences in classification appeared due to the use of different data sources when the effects are described. This aspect is related to the survey of data mentioned below.
2.1.11 Terminology and criteria
Differences in the studies may occur due to the different methodological approaches described above, but there may also be variations in the terms used to describe the methods applied in the study. It is registered whether there are differences in the terminology in the 3 studies examined in the Prestudy.
Among other things the Prestudy resulted in some reflections upon the practical use of the indicative matrix in the regulation on eco-labelling. These reflections lead to the conclusions that it was preferable to use the nomenclature used in the latest SETAC publications within the framework of LCA6) 7).
The setting up of the final criteria on the basis of the established key features implies considerations of a number of practical aspects (e.g. assessment of the possibilities of achieving an actual environmental benefit when choosing a certain parameter, or the availability of appropriate test methods for controlling the parameters). This certainly allows a great variety of approaches, and furthermore it is possible to choose between hurdles and scoring systems. These aspects are surveyed and to some extent discussed.
2.2 Horizontal aspects
Studies have to deal with matters that are general for all product groups under consideration, so called horizontal problems. Therefore it is important to survey how different studies have dealt with these problems.
2.2.1 Energy consumption
When energy consumption is looked at, different approaches are possible and these may lead to variable results. One approach is to deal only with the apparent energy used in e.g. the production plant whereas another is to deal with primary energy. Also, the emissions from energy production may be included in some studies and not in others. It is therefore important to survey the different approaches used in the studies and the argumentation for using the methods.
2.2.2 Transportation
When transportation is looked at, different approaches are possible and these may lead to variable results. One approach is to deal with the energy consumption when the transportation takes place. Another approach is that transportation is not a part of the assessment procedure because of the idea of the single european market, and again another is to screen the actual transportation needs and upon the results of that, judge whether the transportation is the determining factor for the product group. If so criteria for that product group should not be established, or the criteria should be transportation specific. The different approaches and the argumentation used in the studies are surveyed.
2.2.3 Emissions
It is registered how emissions are registered, i.e. whether the actual emission from a plant is used as inventory data (black box principle) or whether the potential emissions (not including reduction in the amount of the emitted substance due to cleaning equipment) are the data used.
2.2.4 Connection to public plants
In a number of cases, production sites are connected to a public plant instead of establishing their own facility (e.g. energy production, waste water treatment). This raises the problem of how to allocate the input and output of the public plant to the users of the facility. Allocation to public plant and the method used for allocation is included.
2.2.5 Semi-products
Semi-products may for some kind of products be almost exclusively bought from suppliers and this raises the question of the way to handle such semiproducts. If the production of semi-product is found as one of the key impacts, criteria may be applied to that phase of the life cycle. It may also be judged that it is not possible to change the environmental impacts from manufacturing the semi-products by setting criteria for these. In other cases it may be judged that the manufacturing of semi-products contributes only very little to the overall environmental impact of the product and thus is not a key feature. A conclusion like this is related to the setting up of system boundaries. Therefore, it is essential to establish how different studies have handled semi-products when criteria are set up. The different approaches and the argumentation used in the studies are surveyed.
2.2.6 Control methods
When applying for an eco-label a manufacturer or retailer has to inform on the parameters described in the criteria for the product group. When the EU scheme was new there were very few (if any) decisions on a general EU level on how this information should be supplied (format etc.). Further, there were few decisions on how the information should be controlled.
This has been developed over time, e.g. development of application formats connected to the specific criteria. The chosen formats and control methods are registered.
2.2.7 Packaging
The handling of packaging - like in the case of transportation - varies, too. It is registered whether packaging has been regarded as an integrated part of the product subject to the same environmental demands as the product itself, if it has not been included at all or if any other approach has been chosen. The arguments for the choices are discussed.
2.2.8 Data aspects
Even when studies are using the same methodology different results may occur if different sets of data are used. Different types of data sets appear at different levels of an eco-label study. The handling of e.g. the case of missing data is crucial. Data sources and types are registered and it is noted in the study whether or not data quality indicators have been developed.
2.2.9 Raw materials
Raw materials used in the production of a product may be common products on the market and in this case it could be chosen in some studies not to get information from the suppliers on emissions and consumption of resources, but instead use generic data (i.e. data concerning oil-/plast products deriving from standardised european data sources (18)). The use of generic or specific data is mapped in the survey.
It is also important to survey if assessments made in one eco-label study is taken into account into other studies. If for example paper is part of a product, and an assessment of this material is part of the key features, it is essential that this assessment is consistent with the assessment performed in the eco-label studies on paper products in stead of introducing totally different key features. The arguments for the choices are discussed.
2.2.10 Energy
As described in connection with the "horizontal aspects" data concerning energy production (e.g. emissions from power plants, efficiency of power production) may be included in some cases, and therefore it has been necessary to survey which data are used for the three product groups analysed in the Prestudy.
2.2.11 Assessment of environmental loadings
In the process of assessing the environmental impact of the environmental loadings that have been found in the inventory phase, it will often occur that these loadings are compared with the total emission of the same substance. It is therefore essential to register whether the emission data used as reference are national, regional, EEC or global and the reasons for choosing the reference.
2.2.12 Environmental and health data
In the cases where "official" judgments are used in the impact assessment it is registered which sources (i.e. type of list, country, year of issue) are used.
6) Guidelines for Life-cycle Asessment: A "Code of Practise". [Back]
A Conceptual Framework for Life-Cycle Impact Assessment. [Back]