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Antimony - Consumption, Dispersal and Risks
Summary and conclusions
This literature review on antimony was initiated by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency in the spring of
2003 to improve the basis for an assessment of the exposure of humans and the environment in Denmark to this
metalloid and the possible need for regulatory or other mitigating actions.
The review comprises a description and assessment of the use and consumption of antimony in Denmark, the
dispersal, occurrence and behaviour in the environment, as well as the possible adverse effects on humans and the
environment.
Use and consumption in Denmark
The table below summarises the most important fields of use of metallic antimony and antimony compounds, and
the associated consumption in Denmark in 2000, for each category of use. The two commercially most important
antimony compounds are antimony trioxide and antimony trisulphide.
| Category of use |
Consumption, tons of antimony (2000) |
% of total consumption (average) |
| Metallic antimony |
88-150 |
23 |
| Accumulators/batteries |
75-93 |
16 |
| Keels for yachts etc. |
5-24 |
2.8 |
| Ammunition |
1.6-2.5 |
0.4 |
| Other lead/antimony and tin/antimony alloys |
4-12 |
1.6 |
| Other uses |
2-20 |
2.2 |
| Chemical compounds |
210-560 |
75 |
| Flame retardants |
150-350 |
49 |
| Brake linings |
30-84 |
11 |
| Art glassware |
10-50 |
6 |
| Cathode ray tubes |
11-40 |
5 |
| Catalysts |
3-12 |
1.5 |
| Other uses |
5-25 |
2.9 |
| Antimony as an impurity |
3.5-5.7 |
0.9 |
| Coal and oil |
3.5-5.5 |
0.9 |
| Other fuels |
0.0001-0.2 |
0.02 |
| Total consumption in Denmark |
300-720 |
100 |
Environmental exposure
Limited data is available regarding the occurrence and levels of antimony in the environment, and in particular
Danish data are lacking for a number of relevant matrices. However, fairly recent Swedish data have been
identified, which are assessed to be relevant for Denmark too. When combining Danish and Swedish data a
reasonable coverage of the most important environmental media and pollution sources is given. Important types of
point sources include glass, plastic and textile industries. Total emissions of antimony to the environment in
Denmark are estimated to be somewhat less than 5 tons per year. The contributions from a number of significant
sources to the total annual emissions to the environment are shown below.
| Receiving compartment: |
Source category |
Amount of antimony (tons/year) |
| Atmosphere |
Power plants (coal) |
0.01-0.02 |
| |
Waste incineration plants |
0.01-0.05 |
| Surface water |
Sewage treatment plants |
0.3-0.8 |
| |
Industrial wastewater |
1.0-2.1 |
| Terrestrial environment |
Sewage sludge and compost |
0.12-0.14 |
| |
Manure |
0.16-0.26 |
| |
Fertilizers |
0.01-0.02 |
| Environment, total |
|
1.6-3.3 |
Effect data exist for a range of organisms and trophic levels in the aquatic environment and, thus, it has been
possible to establish a tentative predicted no-effect concentration (NOEC) for antimony in surface water (6 μg/l).
For the terrestrial environment there are, however, very few data and, hence, it has not been possible to make a
similar estimate for this compartment.
Based on the available data, it is assessed that discharges into the aquatic environment resulting in concentrations
exceeding the PNEC will only occur under special, local conditions. The same is assessed, however, based on very
limited documentation, to be the case for the terrestrial environment.
Exposure of humans
Under normal circumstances, exposure of humans to antimony via inhalation will be marginal compared to the
exposure by intake of food, which is assessed to be the dominant source of exposure of the general population.
Intake of antimony with food will for the adult population, in most cases, be below 20% of the ADI. Only in special
situations intake with drinking water can be compared with intake with food.
Uptake of antimony through the skin upon contact with textiles (primarily polyester) is assessed to be limited and,
based on the available data, to pose a minor risk of exposure to humans. However, it should be noted that elevated
temperatures and sweat production will increase the absorption of antimony and thereby the possible risk of effects
on the skin. It should be emphasised that review and assessment of data regarding the possible occupational
exposure to antimony were not part of this study.
Conclusions
In general, the exposure of the Danish population to antimony via the environment (including food and water) is, at
the present level of use and dispersal into our surroundings, assessed not to be problematic. Only if a number of
unfavourable circumstances coincide, the total environmental exposure will be able to reach or exceed the level of
acceptable daily intake. However, possible exposure in the working environment is not included in this assessment.
Correspondingly, the antimony level in a range of relevant materials and products, waste flows and emissions is so
low (based primarily on Swedish and Danish data) that, in general, this element is not assessed to constitute an
environmental problem at present. Exceptions to this general assessment are believed to be confined to very local
environments, e.g. elevated levels in small streams and lakes downstream the discharge points of certain types of
industries such as plants manufacturing special types of glass, plastic and textiles, or terrestrial areas adjacent to
such plants.
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Version 1.0 Januar 2004, © Miljøstyrelsen.
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