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Environmental Factors and Health

11 Waste

Waste is a by-product of human activity and is defined as any substance or object that the owner discards, or intends or is required to discard (Framework Directive on Waste). Managing waste can cause impacts on the environment and human health. Problems can arise from the moment waste is produced to when material is recovered from waste, waste is converted into usable energy, or deposited at a landfill site.

Both the amount and the toxicity of waste can have an impact on the environment and/or human health. The challenge is therefore to stabilise or reduce the amount of waste generated, as well as minimise the detrimental impacts from hazardous substances in waste.

Waste has traditionally been perceived as useless and something to be disposed of at the lowest possible cost. However, poor standards of management, particularly some notorious episodes such as mercury poisoning of Minamata Bay, Japan in 1956 and chemical waste disposal at Love Canal, USA, in 1978 helped raise the public awareness of the consequences of poor waste management. The primary issues addressed by early waste regulation focused on the potential health risk posed by improper waste disposal and associated environmental impacts, and involved setting emission limits and standards in an 'end-of-pipe' approach. In parallel with increasing environmental concern and the introduction of concepts such as sustainability, the approach to waste management also changed. Today, waste is increasingly considered as representing a loss of resources and energy from the economy, and although 'end-of-pipe' control is still crucial, waste regulation now includes the entire waste management system, from production to disposal.

This chapter focuses on the regulatory framework on waste and the associated environmental factors that potentially have an impact on human health.

11.1 Human Exposure to environmental factors

Nowadays direct human exposure to waste is normally restricted to private production and disposal of waste and possibly also exposure in the working environment. In the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, however, exposure to waste and wastewater was severely threatening public health. The driving force behind most of the present waste regulation has therefore been considerations for human health, and only in the last decades have considerations for the environment and resource efficiency have been included. The result is a waste management system with virtually no direct human exposure to waste, but with indirect exposure through emissions from waste management. These indirect health effects through contamination of air, soil or water are covered under the chapters addressing these media.

Examples of exposure to environmental factors from waste are given in table 11.1

Table 11.1
Examples of exposure to environmental factors from waste

11.1.1 General waste stream

Danish waste management streams from source to final disposal are presented in figure 11.1. The figure does not intend to present all possible waste streams, but merely to give an overall picture.

Figure 11.1
Overall picture of waste management streams from source to final disposal.

For the waste producer, waste poses a potential health problem until it has been collected. Problems can include the spread of micro-organisms during the biodegradation of organic waste, odour, the presence of vermin and risk of disease spread, and the risk of physical contact, especially with discarded hazardous substances.

Human exposure during waste collection and transport is associated mainly with transport. The large quantities of waste that are generated mean that the transport of waste constitutes a source of environmental factors such as emissions to air from waste collection vehicles of NO_x, SO₂, CO, particulates, and hydrocarbons (see Chapter 5 on air). In addition, transport of waste involves an inherent risk of accidental discharge of harmful emissions to the environment.

The environmental factors to which humans can be exposed depend on the waste composition. Waste streams containing hazardous substances pose a significant health risk. For instance, the separate collection and recycling of waste containing high concentrations of heavy metals can significantly reduce the environmental impact of incineration/landfill. Heavy metals are not destroyed during incineration and are either emitted from the incineration plant via the smokestack, in the wastewater, or in the residual waste. A reduction in the heavy metal content of waste incinerated would therefore result in lower emissions and lower health risk.

11.1.2 Waste treatment facilities

Waste treatment and disposal facilities can be considered as consisting of a series of input and output material and energy streams, as shown in Figure 11.2 below. Of concern from a public health viewpoint is exposure to the following outputs: emissions to air, soil and water, and residual waste. Emissions to the environment are a potential health risk, both when 'controlled' and discharged during routine operation of the waste facility, and when released accidentally. In addition to the outputs mentioned, waste facilities can give rise to exposure to environmental factors that can be a nuisance, such as noise, smell, and dust from the facility operations.

Figure 11.2
Input-output analysis or mass balance of a waste facility.

Examples of waste facilities including recycling facilities, biological treatment plants, incineration plants and landfill sites and the most important environmental factors associated with these facilities are given below.

Waste recycling facilities

In 1998, 62 % of the total amount of waste generated in Denmark was recycled⁹⁶. Waste is recycled and treated at a number of Danish recycling facilities, e.g. steel mills, crushing facilities for construction and demolition waste, treatment facilities for hazardous waste, glass factories, paper factories and plastic factories. Emissions from the recycling facilities are primarily air emissions.

Biological treatment

The primary objective of biological treatment is to use the treated waste as agricultural fertiliser. Energy production may be the secondary objective in some cases. Provisions have been laid down on the use of compost, ash from biomass, sludge, sewage and other waste products for agricultural purposes (Statutory Order on Sludge no. 49 of 20 January 2000 and Statutory Order on Bioash no. 39 of 20 January 2000). These regulations define hygienic criteria as well as quality criteria for the maximum concentration of organic contaminants and heavy metals in waste products to be distributed on agricultural land. Fulfilment of these rather strict requirements is only possible through careful control of the waste composition including sorting out problematic fractions at the source.

Biological treatment can be used to treat the biodegradable fraction of waste, such as organic household waste and garden waste. Two main treatment types exist: composting and biogasification. Composting involves the aerobic degradation of organic matter in reactors or windrows. Possible health risks related to composting include emissions to air of e.g. aerosols containing micro-organisms and endotoxins. The presence of vermin could also pose a health risk. Biogasification is an anaerobic process that takes place under controlled conditions in closed reactors and is mostly used in combination with liquid manure. The small amounts of leachate formed at composting plants and the liquid effluent from the biogasification process, which is used as fertiliser, are not thought to present a potential health risk.

Emissions to air and water, and emissions related to residual solid waste are outputs from incineration plants that cause potential health risks. Contaminants emitted to air via the smoke stack include dioxins and furans, volatile heavy metals (e.g. Hg, Cd, Pb), acidic gases (HCl, HF, SO₂), and particulates, all of which pose a potential risk to human health. Exposure can occur either by inhalation or by ingestion following transfer of the emission to soil or water. Emissions to water result from discharges of wastewater from the flue gas cleaning process and can affect people in contact with the recipient water (e.g. stream).

Residual waste from incineration plants comprises bottom ash (or slag) and the more toxic residues from flue gas treatment. Bottom ash can be used in construction, e.g. as an aggregate in road base material. Flue gas cleaning residues are considered hazardous and need to be treated prior to disposal at a landfill for hazardous waste. Contaminants such as heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb) in residual waste including both bottom ash and especially flue gas cleaning residues can potentially leach resulting in emissions to soil and groundwater and/or surface water.

The main outputs from landfill sites are landfill gas and leachate. Potential health risks from landfill gas relate to the migration of methane through the soil and into neighbouring houses, causing a potential for explosion. Other trace components in landfill gas such as volatile organic compounds are also a public health issue. At landfill sites with gas collection systems, landfill gas is recovered and used to generate heat, electricity or both.

Leachate can potentially contaminate the soil and groundwater surrounding the site, which poses a threat when this water is extracted for drinking purposes (surface water can also be affected). Leachate often contains harmful organic compounds (e.g. chlorinated organics, pesticides), heavy metals (e.g. As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Cu, Ni) and other inorganic compounds (e.g. Ca, K, Na, NH₄, CO₃, SO₄, Cl). Where a landfill site has a leachate collection system, emissions to soil and water are reduced, and treated leachate is discharged to surface water. In addition, vermin can be present at landfill sites and can potentially spread diseases to humans.

11.2 Level of protection

The Danish waste management has resulted in a waste management system with virtually no direct human exposure to waste except in the working environment. The level of protection is considered high, but there are however possibilities for indirect exposure to emissions from waste management such as air pollution from waste incineration or groundwater contamination from landfill leachates.

Human health aspects are generally included in waste legislation, though often not mentioned directly. Reuse and recycling of waste has a high priority in the Danish waste management system. Reuse and recycling of waste back into products used in society allows possible harmful substances to be recycled as well. Therefore, the regulatory framework promotes and regulates the reuse and recycling intent to handle the possible negative effects on environment and health as well. This secures that possible harmful effects and trace components are regulated.

Hygienic aspects in waste management have been in focus since late in the 19th century. These aspects are now rather implicit in Danish legislation. Human health aspects are mentioned directly in provisions regarding hazardous waste. Hazardous waste is characterised as waste which demonstrates one or more of the following properties: health hazard or infectious or fire hazard or harmful to the environment.

Qualitative and quantitative criteria are included in the Statutory Order on Waste. In appendix 3 and 4 of the order are described respectively properties of waste which render them hazardous and percentage limitations (of total content of a category of waste).

A vital health protective measure in the Danish waste management system is the separation, see section below, and classification of waste.

Classification of hazardous waste according to European Waste Catalogue is the duty of the enterprises producing the waste.

11.3 Regulatory framework

11.3.1 Objectives and principles

The objectives of legislation on waste are to minimise the potential environmental impacts and the risks to human health, prevent waste generation, encourage materials and energy recovery, and minimise waste disposal. The legal framework for waste management in Denmark is given in the Environmental Protection Act (Part 6).

The main elements in the Danish waste management strategy are included in the waste hierarchy, in which waste prevention has the highest priority, followed by recycling and reuse, recovery of raw materials and/or the production of energy (including incineration with energy recovery), and finally disposal to landfill.

The separation of waste at the source is an important part of the Danish waste management system. Separating waste into different fractions, where this is economically viable and environmentally beneficial, allows a better resource recovery and reduces the potential impact on human health from environmental factors, thereby improving the quality of the waste management. For example, PVC polymer contains a number of additives, the most hazardous of which are stabilisers, in particular those containing heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, and plasticisers, mainly phthalates. When incinerated, PVC increases the quantity of flue gas cleaning residues, and practically all lead and cadmium in PVC end up in these residues, increasing the concentration of heavy metals. PVC also contributes to HCl emissions to air and possibly to the formation of dioxins. The separate collection and recycling or landfilling of PVC would reduce the risk of exposure to environmental factors resulting from incinerating PVC waste together with combustible municipal solid waste.

The Danish legislation on waste is characterised by a close interaction between EU regulations and national regulations. The EU regulations outline the overall framework and principles. The actual organisation and implementation of the EU Directives in the national legislation are tasks for the Danish government. The Danish waste model works by a combination of traditional regulations (acts, orders and government circulars), a number of economic instruments such as charges, taxes and subsidies, as well as agreements.

11.3.2 Legislation on waste management

The Directive on waste (75/442/EEC), revised and amended in 1991 (91/156/EEC), provides a framework for the environmentally sound management of waste. The Directive covers all waste that is not regulated by separate provisions.

The Directive describes the key elements of a waste management strategy, namely the waste hierarchy, and stipulates that waste must be managed without endangering human health and the environment. The abandonment, dumping or uncontrolled disposal of waste is prohibited, and all waste treatment and disposal facilities must obtain a permit, and be subject to periodic inspections.

The framework Directive on waste has been implemented in Denmark in the Danish Environmental Protection Act and the Statutory Order on Waste.

Hazardous waste

Hazardous waste covers many different categories of waste. The Directive on hazardous waste (91/689/EEC) covers all waste as defined in Annexes I, II and III of the Directive and the list of hazardous wastes in the European Waste Catalogue⁹⁷. Waste is categorised as hazardous if it contains certain hazardous substances, and/or displays the properties that render it hazardous.

The Directive on hazardous waste is supplemented by a number of individual directives regulating specific hazardous waste streams. Basic principles contained in the framework directive on waste and the Directive on hazardous waste on e.g. permits for storing, treating or disposing of hazardous waste also apply to the individual directives for the hazardous waste fractions.

The proportion of all hazardous waste in Denmark was about 2.3 % of the total amount of waste generated in 1998. The implementation of the Directive on Hazardous Waste in the Danish legislation is ensured through provisions in the Statutory Order on Waste. Specific hazardous waste fractions covered by separate directives are also regulated through e.g. statutory orders. Additional waste fractions (for which no directives currently exist) are also regulated in Denmark.

The criteria for waste being hazardous are primarily based on health aspects: Toxic, harmful corrosive, local irritant, allergenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, harmful to fertility and infectious. But also ecotoxic, flammable and explosive properties are criteria for waste being hazardous.

According to the Statutory Order on Waste the municipalities are obliged to set up collection schemes for hazardous waste generated in industries and households. Most other types of waste the municipality only have to assign to specific treatment facilities. These very strict provisions for hazardous waste compared to other waste categories are based on considerations on health aspects and environmental protection aspects.

Transport of hazardous waste

Transboundary movements of hazardous waste follow specific procedures based on prior notification, authorisation and financial guarantees.

The Basel Convention of 1989 on the transboundary movement of hazardous waste and their disposal prohibited the export of hazardous waste from OECD countries to non-OECD countries. One of the main purposes of the Convention is to minimise the movement of hazardous waste. The Convention also defines a number of procedures to be followed such as requirements for notification and authorisation of movements.

Together with the other EU Member States, Denmark has implemented the Basel Convention in the Regulation (no. 259/93) on shipments of waste, regulating transboundary movements of waste, including hazardous waste but also non-hazardous waste. The Regulation distinguishes between waste destined for disposal and waste destined for recovery. Since the 1 January 1998, the movement of hazardous waste destined for final disposal from OECD countries to non-OECD countries has been prohibited. The Regulation is supplemented in Danish legislation by a Statutory Order on import and export of waste (no. 971 of 19 November 1996).

The Regulation presents a number of objections to transboundary shipments of waste for disposal. A ban must be justified by the fact that the waste could be disposed of closer to its origin (proximity principle), or that the waste should be recovered (priority for recovery), or that the Community as a whole should become self-sufficient in waste disposal so that the waste problem is not solved by exportation of waste (principle of self-sufficiency).

The movement of waste within a country is also regulated. In Denmark, the Statutory Order on Waste stipulates that private companies transporting waste produced in a municipality must be registered with the local council. When transporting hazardous waste, companies must keep a record of the amount and type of hazardous waste, the waste producer and place of delivery.

Requirements for some of the most important hazardous and non-hazardous waste fractions are described in Appendices 7 and 8.

Residual solid waste from incineration plants includes bottom ash (or slag) and flue gas cleaning residues. In Denmark, the majority of bottom ash is recycled in building and construction works; in 1998 more than 80% was recycled and the rest was landfilled. The limit values for heavy metal content in bottom ash have recently been adjusted to increase surface water and groundwater protection, and the minimum distance to the nearest water supplies has been increased to 30 m (Statutory Order on the use of residual waste and soil in building and construction works, no. 655 of 27 June 2000). The consequences, especially in the short term, may be that less bottom ash will meet the criteria and will be landfilled as opposed to be recycled. Direct contact with bottom ash used for e.g. roads, paths and around underground pipes and cables must be prevented by using a layer of soil meeting more stringent quality criteria. In addition, indoor air quality must not be affected where bottom ash is used to build foundations and floors.

Flue gas cleaning residues are classified as hazardous waste due to high concentrations of salts and heavy metals. Initiatives have been launched to establish three landfills receiving all stabilised flue gas cleaning residues generated in Denmark. Once these landfills are in operation, export of flue gas cleaning products will no longer be permitted. Flue gas cleaning residues are currently in temporary storage in Denmark, but since the beginning of 2000 all residues have been exported for landfilling in Norway and Germany.

Energy generation at Danish power plants is currently based on coal, oil, natural gas, or biofuels. Residues from power plants are not included in the Statutory Order on waste and are not the responsibility of the municipalities. Hardly any residues are generated at oil and natural gas-fired power plants. Residues (bioash) are produced from the combustion of biofuels and are expected to increase, with the planned increase in the use of biofuels to generate energy over the next 30 years. The recycling of bioash to agricultural land is regulated by the Statuary Order (no. 49 of 20 January 2000).

Residues from coal-fired power plants are slag, fly ash, gypsum, desulphurisation product and sulphuric acid. In 1998, 86% of residues were recycled, although slag and fly ash in particular contain a number of heavy metals that may limit the possibilities for recycling. Just as for residual waste from incineration plants, the limit values for heavy metal content have recently been adjusted.

Organic waste accounts for approximately 40-45 % of domestic waste. In 1997, around 70,000 tonnes of domestic waste were treated biologically, corresponding to 4 % of domestic waste. The majority of organic waste from industry, which is just below 8.5 million tonnes per year, is treated biologically or used directly in agriculture as fertilizer.

Residues from the biological treatment of organic waste are subject to the same requirements as sewage sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants (refer to Chapter 12 on wastewater). The Statutory Order on the application of waste products for agricultural purposes lays down limit values for a number of heavy metals (e.g. Cd) and cut-off values for organic chemical pollutants (NPE, DEHP, LAS and certain PAHs). In general, the requirements relating to the content of heavy metals and organic substances are not expected to restrict the recycling of biological residues. However, source separated organic household waste may have problematic contents of man-made substances, especially DEHP, if the source separation is not thorough enough. The Statutory Order also places restrictions on the application of residues from biological treatment based on hygienic considerations.

Special requirements for waste facilities

The Incineration Directive⁹⁸ aims to prevent or reduce possible negative effects on the environment from emissions to air, soil, surface water and ground-water, as well as any resulting risk to human health. This aim is to be meet by requiring stringent operational and emission limit values for incineration (and co-incineration) plants. The Directive will cover all waste and introduces far stricter provisions than those found in the existing municipal waste incineration Directives (89/369/ EEC and 89/429/EEC) and in the existing hazardous waste incineration Directive (94/67/EEC), which would be repealed.

The proposed Directive introduces more stringent limit values that will lead to significant reductions in emissions to air of several key pollutants of concern for human health. Considerable reductions at EU level will be achieved for acid gases such as NOx, SO₂ and HCl, as well as for heavy metals, particularly cadmium and mercury. Incineration plants have been identified as a major source of atmospheric emissions of dioxins and furans, and an emission limit value has also been introduced for these toxic organic compounds. There is also a more stringent limit value for total dust, although the finer particulates (<10µ g in diameter) are most harmful to human health. Implementing the draft Directive into Danish legislation will mean that several existing plants will either have to shut down or install supplementary flue gas cleaning equipment, particularly to comply with the limit values for HCl, SO2, dioxins, for which no previous emission limit exists, and Hg.

The draft Directive sets emission limit values from wastewater for the first time, particularly aimed at heavy metals, to reduce the pollution impact of incineration on marine and fresh water ecosystems. The existing Danish limit values for wastewater are generally more stringent than the proposed EU limits.

Finally, the draft Directive stipulates that the amount and toxicity of residual waste from incineration plants must be minimised, and recycled where appropriate, or disposed of under certain conditions (see above section on "Special requirements for specific waste streams").

The aim of the landfill Directive (1999/31/EEC) is to ensure minimum requirements for landfill disposal in the EU, in order to prevent or reduce possible negative effects on the environment, from emissions to air, soil, surface water and groundwater, as well as any resulting risk to human health, over the entire lifetime of the landfill. This aim is to be meet by requiring stringent operational and technical requirements at landfills for hazardous, non-hazardous and inert waste.

The Directive stipulates general requirements regarding the location, design and monitoring of landfills. For example, the location of a landfill must consider distances from the site to residential, agricultural and recreation areas, and to the presence of groundwater interests, coastal or nature protection. Landfill gas is to be collected from new landfills receiving biodegradable waste, and the gas used to recover energy or at least flared. Landfills must have liners/ membranes and the leachate should be collected and treated in order to minimise the potential risk of soil, groundwater and surface water contamination.

Waste acceptance criteria are also stipulated in the Directive. The landfilling of certain wastes including used tyres and liquid waste is banned, and reduction targets exist for the amount of biodegradable municipal waste going to landfills.

The landfill Directive will be implemented in Danish legislation by July 2001 via amendments to the Environmental Protection Act, and subsequent changes to statutory orders. In Denmark, only public authorities can own new landfill sites. Existing landfills must draw up a conditioning plan, stating the measures needed to upgrade the landfill to comply with the requirements for new landfills by July 2009 or alternatively close the landfill site as soon as possible. The landfilling of combustible waste has been banned in Denmark since 1997, and the reduction targets for landfilling of biodegradable municipal waste will not have any influence in Denmark, as almost all biodegradable municipal waste is treated biologically or incinerated.

In 1998, 62 % of the total amount of waste generated in Denmark was recycled⁹⁹. Waste is recycled and treated at a number of Danish recycling facilities, e.g. composting and biogasification plants, steel mills, crushing facilities for construction and demolition waste, some treatment facilities for hazardous waste (where oil and chemicals are recovered), bottle cleaning facilities, glass factories, paper factories and plastic factories. The recycling facilities are owned both privately and publicly.

Danish recycling facilities are required to apply for environmental approvals (According to Chapter 5 in the Environmental Protection Act and Statutory Order on Approval of Listed Activities no. 807, of October 25, 1999). Environmental approvals or permits are issued by the municipal or county authorities, depending on the category of polluting activity and the ownership of the specific waste facility. Environmental approvals are granted provided that specific conditions or requirements are fulfilled, such as that emission limit values are met, and the best available technology is used to prevent and reduce pollution.

11.4 Instruments

11.4.1 Regulatory instruments

Action plans

In Waste 21 (The Danish Government's Waste Management Plan 1998-2004) health aspects are mentioned directly in sections regarding health care risk waste, transport of hazardous waste, PCB/PCT-waste and residual waste from power plants. The health aspect though is implicitly included in a number of other sections as well, e.g. electrical and electronic equipment, refrigeration equipment, CFC.

As waste management has paid attention to health aspects since late in the 19 century, human health is regarded, but often only implicitly. "Environmental protection" is often used synonymous with protection of both environment and human health.

Voluntary agreements

During the 1990s, the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy entered into a number of agreements with relevant organisations to ensure the separate collection of certain special wastes. The objective was to establish systems that would encourage individual households to participate in recycling. Voluntary agreements specify a goal for recycling of the given waste stream. If the goal is reached, the system will stabilise; if not, political initiatives are often taken to reach the goal.

NiCd batteries

The oldest voluntary agreement regarding waste is the 1991 agreement on nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries¹⁰⁰. The goal was to collect 75% of all NiCd batteries. The collection percentage was only 35% after some years and it was decided to denounce the agreement. Thus in an attempt to increase the collection percentage, the Minister for Environment and Energy imposed a green tax on NiCd batteries of DKK 6 per cell and DKK 36 per package, while at the same time introducing bonus of DKK 150 per kg to the parties collecting spent batteries.

Transport packaging

In 1994, an agreement was made on the recycling of transport packaging materials¹⁰¹. The goal is to recycle 80% of all transport packaging materials. It is intended that this should be attained through the participation of trade enterprises in municipal collection schemes, including the Confederation of Danish Industries, the Danish Plastics Federation, and the Packaging Industry.

Tyres

Originally made in 1993, a new agreement with the Danish Motor Trade Association, the Association of Danish Recycling Industries, and municipal associations came into effect in 1995¹⁰². The goal is to recycle at least 80% of all types of scrap tyres by 2004, thereby reducing the amount of scrap tyres deposited at landfills. A consumer levy of DKK 8 per new tyre is used as a subsidy for enterprises that collect tyres and deliver them to enterprises where the tyres are converted to rubber granulate.

Lead accumulators

A formal agreement has been made for lead accumulators between the minister and the association for collection of lead accumulators (importers and retailers). The goal of the agreement is to achieve a collection percentage of 99,9% for lead accumulators, with a current percentage recovery of 99,9%. Legislative intervention has now taken place, just as for NiCd batteries.

An agreement was made in 1996 with the Danish Demolition Association on the selective demolition of building materials, thereby ensuring source separation of waste.

The collection and safe disposal of CFC-containing refrigeration equipment is ensured by an agreement with the relevant associations involved. The objective is to collect a minimum of 90% of discarded refrigeration equipment by 2004.

11.4.2 Economic instruments

The most important economic instruments used in Denmark with respect to waste management are taxes, especially the waste disposal tax, and deposit-refund systems.

Product Tax

Specific product green taxes exist, for example on NiCd (nickel and cadmium) batteries. The tax aims at reducing the use and increasing the recovery rates of NiCd batteries.

Denmark applies a product tax on packaging; the Act (No. 726 of 7 October 1998) has been in force since 1 January 1999. The environmental aim of the tax is to encourage the use of reusable/refillable packaging and reduce the amount of packaging waste. The tax applies to containers made of among others plastic, glass, metal, cardboard, and composites, as well as paper and plastic carrier bags. The charge affects foodstuffs (such as beverages, oil, vinegar, margarine) but also includes soaps, detergents, lubricants, pesticides. The revenue amounted to MDKK 809 in 1998.

In 1990, all non-hazardous waste became subject to a tax. In 2000 and 2001 the tax is 375 DKK per ton for waste landfilled. The charge for waste incineration is 330 DKK per ton in 2001, in 2000 the charge differed: 280 DKK and 330 DKK with and without energy recovery respectively. Waste that is recovered, recycled, reused or composted is exempt from the tax. In 1998, the waste tax raised MDKK 889 (DEPA, 1999a).

The purpose of the tax is to encourage recycling and increase the proportion of waste managed by techniques towards the top of the waste management hierarchy. The waste disposal tax has been a very important instrument and has lead to a significant increase in recycling, as well as a significant decrease in the amount of waste landfilled. Only 15% of the total waste generated was landfilled in 1997. As for possible fraud, no increase in illicit dumping of waste has been reported since the charge was introduced.

Since 1984 in Denmark, beer and soft drinks may only be sold in containers that can either be refilled or recycled. Statutory Order no. 124 of 27 February 1989 requires that for containers produced in Denmark must be refillable, be a part of a deposit-return system, and approved by DEPA. The deposit for small bottles (<50 cl) is 1.25 DKK, and between 2.5 and 4 DKK for large bottles.

The purpose of these mandatory systems is to limit waste from packaging by encouraging the reuse of beverage containers. The return rates are over 99%; the average number of times a glass bottle is reused is 35-40. The high return rates may also imply that less broken glass is found in public spaces, reducing the risk of injury from broken glass.

The aim of the waste fee is to make the user (e.g. households, enterprises etc.) of the municipal collection service pay for the costs associated with waste management, in accordance with the polluter pays principle. The waste fee covers the costs incurred by the municipality and should correspond to the level of service provided.

Subsidies have been allocated to projects promoting cleaner technology, which aims at minimising the potential environmental and health risks that occur during the entire lifetime of products, including during waste management. In 1998, the budget for projects in the area of cleaner technology was close to 90 MDKK. Subsidies have also funded projects in the area of waste recovery including projects aimed at mitigating impacts related to recovery, recycling and treatment of waste. In 1998, the budget for projects concerning waste recovery projects was about 115 MDKK (DEPA, 1999).

11.5 Actors

The primary actors concerning regulation of waste management are listed in table 11.2. For general descriptions of the mentioned actors please refer to chapter 3.

Table 11.2
Actors, roles and responsibilities concerning waste management

11.6 Evaluation

Danish waste regulation has been very successful in hindering human contact with waste, but still humans may be indirectly exposed to emissions from waste management. The overall health objective of the waste regulation is to avoid any harmful impact on public health, whether it is directly through contact with waste or indirectly through emissions from waste management. From the start of waste management history - more than hundred years ago - protection of public health has been an integrated part of waste regulation to a degree where special objectives concerning public health only seldom are mentioned explicitly.

The principal strategy is to prioritise waste management in the following order (the waste hierarchy):

1. Waste prevention
2. Reuse
3. Recycling
4. Incineration with energy recovery
5. Landfill disposal

The regulation of the waste area in Denmark is generally very detailed, and the degree of recycling is high. However, it is still the aim to increase the degree of recycling and to identify and separate the problematic waste fractions in order to limit the emissions of substances that may have a negative impact on human health and the environment. The instruments used are both a detailed regulation and economic instruments such as taxes and waste fees. Among the regulatory instruments, the regulations on specific waste fractions and on hazardous waste should be noted. The objective is to separate out the most problematic waste fractions, in order to improve the possibilities for recycling of the remaining waste stream. Also, the general principle of waste separation as close to the source as possible is crucial to the possibilities for recycling and reuse.

Even though waste regulation is very detailed not all of the special regulations have yet reached their full effect. Present problems are primarily connected to emissions from waste management, and especially dioxin emissions from waste incineration should be noted (as described in chapter 5).

The challenges to the waste regulation and management of today are:

To direct the waste streams as high as possible in the waste hierarchy.

To observe and minimise negative effects on health and environment from waste minimisation and increased recycling (e.g. wastewater sludge, organic waste, incineration slag and PVC).

Waste minimisation and waste prevention are of prime importance in the strive for sustainable development. Focus must be on the source of the waste production and increased producer responsibility. Another trend will be the increased recycling of waste products. Because of the often very complex composition of waste it will be important to gain more knowledge on waste composition and the potential human exposure and health effects especially connected to waste recycling. A special issue, which demands future attention, is the regulation of animal waste from meat-industries/slaughterhouses.

11.7 References

DEPA (1997) "Hygienic aspects of treatment and reuse of organic waste", Environmental Project no. 351, Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Environment and Energy, Copenhagen.

DEPA (1999a) "Economic Instruments in Environmental Protection in Denmark", Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Environment and Energy, Copenhagen.

DEPA (1999b) "Waste in Denmark", Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Waste 21 (1999) The Danish Government's Waste Management Plan 1998-2004, Ministry of Environment and Energy, Copenhagen.

Environmental Protection Act, no. 625 of July 15, 1997, and amendments.

Statutory Order no. 619 of June 27, 2000 on Waste.

Statutory Order no. 807 of October 25, 1999 on Approval of Listed Activities.

Statutory Order no. 39 of 20 January 2000 on use of ash from gasification and combustion of biomass and biomass waste for agricultural and related purposes (the "Statutory Order on bioash").

Statutory Order no. 49 of 20 January 2000 on use of waste products for agricultural and related purposes (the "Statutory Order on Sludge").

Statutory Order no. 1044 of December 16, 1999 on certain batteries and accumulators that contain hazardous substances.

Statutory Order no. 91 of 22 February 1996 on Collection of Lead Accumulators and Subsidy to Collection and Disposal for Recycling.

Statutory Order no. 92 of 22 February 1996 on Fees on Lead Accumulators,.

Statutory Order no. 93 of 22 February 1996 on Collection of Hermetically Sealed Nickel-Cadmium Accumulators (Closed Nickel-Cadmium Batteries) and Remuneration for Collection and Disposal for Recycling.

Statutory Order no. 925 of 13 December 1998 on PCB, PCT and substitute substances.

Statutory Order no. 860 of 29 November 1999 on management of waste in the form of motor vehicles and derived waste.

Statutory Order no. 141 of 25 February 2000 on collection of environmental charge and remuneration in relation to scrapping of cars.

Statutory Order no. 655 of 27 June 2000 on the use of residual waste and soil in building and construction works.

Statutory Order no. 1067 of 12 December 1998 on management of waste from electric and electronic products.

Framework Directive on Waste 75/442/EEC. Amended by Directive 91/156/EEC of 18 March 1991.

Directive 91/689/EEC of 12 December 1991 on hazardous waste. Amended by Directive 94/31/EC of 27 July 1994.

Directive 96/59/EEC of 16 September 1996 on the disposal of polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated terphenyls (PCBs/PCTs).

Directive 91/157/EEC of 18 March 1991 on batteries and accumulators containing certain dangerous substances. Amended by Directive 93/86/EEC of 4 October 1993; Directive 98/101/EC of 22 December 1998.

Directive 75/439/EEC of 16 June 1975 on the disposal of waste oil. Amended by Directive 87/101/EEC of 22 December 1986; Directive 91/692/EEC of 23 December 1991.

Council Regulation no. 259/93 on the supervision and control of shipments of waste within, into and out of the European Community, as amended by Council Regulation No. 120/97 of 20 January 1997.

Council Directive 94/62/EC of 15 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste.

Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment and on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment COM(2000) 347.

Healthcare risk waste, Guideline no. 4 of 1998.

Circular on Municipal Regulation of Sorting of Construction and Demolition Waste for the Purpose of Recycling, no. 94 of 21 June 1995.

Circular on municipal by-laws on disposal of CFC-containing refrigeration equipment, no. 132 of June 13, 1996.

Statutory Order no. 971 of 19 November 1996 on the import and export of waste.

Statutory Order no. 298 of 30 April 1997 on certain requirements for packaging.

Act on charges on certain packaging and certain paper or plastic carrier bags etc., No. 726 of 7 October 1998

Statutory Order no. 124 of 27 February 1989 on packaging for beer and soft drinks, with subsequent amendments (Statutory Order no. 583 of 24/06/1996; Statutory Order no. 540 of 09/07/1991; Statutory Order no. 300 of 30/04/1997).

Statutory Order no. 1067 of 22 December 1998 on management of waste from electrical and electronic products.

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