Potential measures for reduction of releases of heavy metals, POPs, HCFCs, BRFs and industrial greenhouse gases with particular reference to Russia, Ukraine and China

Potential measures for reduction of releases of heavy metals, POPs, HCFCs, BFRs and industrial greenhouse gases with particular reference to Russia, Ukraine and China

In the following summary a short abstract is presented for each substance/substance group.

An Internet scanning of 27 organisations for aid projects in Russia, Ukraine and China specifically addressing hazardous substances revealed that the main part of ongoing activities is undertaken with support from the Global Environment Facility (implemented by WB, UNIDO, UNEP and UNDP), ACAP (with grants from the Arctic countries) or through bilateral arrangements with Denmark (Russia and Ukraine), Canada (China) and Italy (China). Hazardous substances are not a priority area for the EU TACIS programme, although a few small TACIS BISTRO projects in this field have been identified. Besides these projects specifically addressing the substances, some Climate Change programmes aiming at shifting to other energy sources may indirectly have an impact on the mobilisation of heavy metals and the unintentional formation of PCDD/PCDFs, PCBs and HCB.

The reviews have been used for identification of potential new support activities. The list of activities is included in a memorandum for internal use in the Danish EPA.

1.1 Mercury

Mercury is among the best described pollutants of the World, and the need for global actions to promote release reduction has been commonly accepted in recent years. Mercury and its compounds are toxic to humans and in the envi-ronment, and exposures considered to have adverse effects are present today in many parts of the world.

Mercury releases sources can be grouped according to two principally different mechanisms:

Mobilisation of mercury in trace concentrations in materials exploited in large volumes. Examples of major source categories in this group are coal combustion and extraction of non-ferrous metals and minerals. For this group of sources, end-of-pipe reduction measures are most commonly used. Generally certain mercury reductions can be obtained by multi-pollutant controls (filters etc.) and much can still be done by these means, but for major reduction cuts to occur, mercury specific controls may become necessary. A switch of raw mate-rials or technology is sometimes also an option - for example a switch from coal-fired energy production to renewable energy sources.

Intentional use of mercury in products and processes. Examples of source categories in this group are chlor-alkali production with mercury cells, dental amalgam, mercury thermometers, batteries with mercury and mercury switches, among many others. It has been Danish policy for decades to reduce these re-leases at the primary source by substitution and phase-outs, and promotion of development and commercialisation of adequate alternatives. In many cases end-of-pipe reduction measures have however also been necessary, notably in the industry and in the waste treatment sector, because substitution can gener-ally not be obtained fast, and because end-of-pipe solutions often address sev-eral pollutants at the same time. For products the principal types of measures needed today are elimination of mercury in new products, separate collection, mercury specific reduction filters on waste incineration and environmentally safe disposal.

1.2 Lead

Lead and its compounds are toxic to humans and in the environment. The major source of lead releases to the atmosphere, and a major lead problem of concern, has been the release of lead compounds from the use of lead additives in petrol. Leaded petrol for vehicle transport is today 100% phased out in Russia, Ukraine and China. Lead batteries account for more than 50% of global lead consumption, and development of systems for efficient end environmentally sound collection and recycling of lead batteries is an important activity area. The effect of lead shot on waterfowls is internationally recognised, and a ban on lead shot in wetlands may be the first step in the phase out of lead in ammunition. The major Russian (and global) source category of lead releases today is non-ferrous metal industry. Measures for reduction of lead releases from this industry also address releases of cadmium, mercury and the unintentional production of PCDD/PCDF, PCB and HCB, and release reduction measures are stipulated by the UNECE HM protocol. Reduction of releases from non-ferrous industry is thus a major area of action.

1.3 Cadmium

Cadmium and its compounds are toxic to humans and in the environment. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries account for more than half of the global consumption with China as the major producer. Development of efficient systems for collection and recovery of cadmium batteries as well as batteries containing other hazardous substances is essential for preventing cadmium disposal to landfills and waste incinerators. For most of the major applications of cadmium alternatives are available on the market, e.g. pigments, plastic stabilizers, cadmium plating and batteries. Phase-out programmes for products and processes, for which alternatives are readily available, may include preparation of action plans, surveys of uses and options for substitution and implementation of regulation and substitution demonstration projects. The major global source category of cadmium releases today is non-ferrous metal industry. Measures for reduction of cadmium releases from this sector also address releases of lead, mercury and the unintentional production of PCDD/PCDF, PCB and HCB, and release reduction measures are stipulated by the UNECE HM protocol.

1.4 PCDD/PCDFs

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDFs) are two groups of persistent substances, both toxic to humans and in the environment. PCDD/PCDFs are not used intentionally, and the reduction measures concern the avoidance of formation and releases of the substances. PCDD/PCDFs reduction is addressed by the Stockholm Convention signed by Russia, Ukraine and China. As part of the enabling activities for implementation of the Stockholm Convention, preliminary PCDD/PCDFs inventories are undertaken in the countries and action plans for addressing PCDD/PCDFs releases will be prepared. Further activities concerning PCDD/PCDF reduction should preferably be in accordance with the priorities of the countries' individual action plans.

Releases from waste incineration, iron ore sintering, secondary metal production and uncontrolled burning of waste are probably the main PCDD/PCDFs sources in the countries, and reduction of releases from these sources should have high priority. Measurements of PCDD/PCDFs are complicated and expensive, and there is an urgent need for actual measurements and detailed inventories documenting the need for, and costs of, implementation of reduction measures.

PCDD/PCDF-specific air emission controls (e.g. fabric filter and carbon injection) are a prerequisite for reaching acceptable emission levels from the major source categories, and projects implementing such controls may have a significant demonstration effect.

1.5 PCBs

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of persistent substances, toxic to humans and in the environment. PCBs are not produced intentionally today, but were formerly widely produced, and used in electrical equipment, paints and a number of minor applications. A significant part of the produced PCBs is still in use, first of all in transformers and capacitors, and elimination of waste PCBs and PCB-containing equipment is addressed by the Stockholm Convention signed by Russia, Ukraine and China. PCBs used for paints and other so-called "open applications" have today to a large extent already been released to the environment, and the remaining part is practically impossible to identify and manage. Inventories of PCB-containing electric equipment have been undertaken in all three countries. The main issue is today preparation of adequate regulation, collection of equipment, development of PCB waste management systems and final destruction of the PCBs. Ongoing projects in Russia address identification of PCB-containing equipment for final treatment and construction of two facilities for destruction of liquid PCBs and PCB-containing capacitors respectively. In China a large project on collection and destruction of PCB-containing equipment in selected regions is in preparation.

1.6 HCB

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is persistent and toxic to humans and in the environment. HCB is produced intentionally for use as a pesticide and an intermediate in the production of pentachlorophenol (PCP) and other chemicals. Pesticidal use of HCB is included in the chapter on POPs pesticides. HCB is produced unintentionally by the same thermal processes as PCDD/PCDDs, and measures for PCDD/PCDDs formation also address HCB. The driving force for implementation of the measures will usually be PCDD/PCDDs reduction; the HCB reduction being a desirable side-effect.

Furthermore, HCB is unintentionally produced by some specific chemical and metallurgical processes. HCB is, when certain techniques are applied, produced as by-product by the production of chlorinated solvents, chlorinated aromatics and pesticides, by production of aluminium and magnesium and by production of chlor-alkali. The measures for reduction of HCB releases are changed production processes.

Comprehensive inventories of HCB formation and releases in Russia, Ukraine and China have not been identified, and it is not known to what extent the processes specifically forming HCB are used. The first step in the awareness raising and identification of priority measures may be to assist Russia in undertaking a detailed HCB inventory. The obtained information would also be relevant for other countries from the former Soviet Union.

HCB is in China used for production of PCP (pentachlorophenol), which today has been phased out in most countries because of the presence of PCDD/PCDFs as impurity, and because PCP acts as a precursor for PCDD/PCDFs formation. Phase-out of PCP production consequently addresses more of the POPs. Alternatives to the use of PCP for wood preservation are readily available.

1.7 POPs pesticides

Nine POPs pesticides are addressed by the Stockholm Convention for immediate or future elimination: Aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, DDT, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene, and hexachlorobenzene. In Russia and Ukraine the POPs pesticides are not used today, but the POPs pesticides make a substantial part of the stockpiles of obsolete pesticides. In these countries the issue is thus mainly identification, safe storage and final destruction of obsolete POPs pesticides in close coordination with the management of other obsolete pesticides. Identification, repacking and safe storage of obsolete pesticides in selected oblasts is addressed in ongoing projects, but there is still an urgent need for application of the obtained experience in other regions. The pesticides are today stored intermediately, and in a long-term perspective there is a need for building of destruction facilities, e.g. waste incinerators optimised for pesticide destruction.
In China, DDT, mirex and chlordane are still used as pesticides, first of all for termite and disease vector control, and alternative pest management strategies are under development.

1.8 Industrial greenhouse gases

The gases HFCs, PFCs and SF₆ are addressed here. These are the only so-called industrial greenhouse gases (GHGs) covered in the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) and PFCs (perfluorocarbons) are two groups of substances. SF₆ (sulphurhexaflouride) is an individual substance. The so-called flexible mechanisms for implementation of GHG reduction efforts: "joint implementation" with East European Countries, and "clean development mechanism" with developing countries (including China), offer an opportunity to finance reduction initiatives in other countries on a commercial basis. This is a very strong incentive.

The most important environmental property of these fluorinated compounds is the contribution to global climate change. Though the nominal contributions to global warming from these gases are currently in the range of a few percent, the emission reduction amounts that can be reached by reduction of industrial GHGs lie in the same order of magnitude as individual measures on CO₂, because in principle a 100% substitution is possible for the major uses of industrial GHGs. HFCs and SF₆ are deliberately produced and used in equipment and in products. Releases are primarily generated when using the substances or during the disposal of equipment or products. Substitution/phase-out is therefore the main type of measure for these substances. HFCs are also released as a pollutant from production of the ODS HCFC. These releases may decrease as a result of HCFC reductions stipulated in the Montreal Protocol and its amendments; see section 1.9 and Chapter 7. PFCs are also produced deliberately, but the major releases are generated as unwanted pollutants from the production of primary aluminium. For aluminium production improved technology and release reduction measures are the important types of measures.

1.9 HCFCs

The so-called Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS), including HCFCs, damage the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects the biosphere from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. HCFCs have somewhat lower depleting effects (ODPs) than the CFCs targeted first in the international reduction process.

The substitution of HCFCs is closely linked to the substitution of CFCs on one side and on HFC (industrial GHGs) on the other side. HCFCs have been phased in as intermediate substitutes for CFCs. HFCs constitute a next step of intermediate substitutes to CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs have zero ODP, but unfortunately high global warming potentials. In the context of this report, substitution of both HCFCs and HFCs are priority fields due to their ODP and GWP characteristics. The substitution/phase-out options mentioned for refrigeration and foam blowing for HFCs in chapter 6 are therefore also relevant for HCFCs, and a direct substitution to non-ODP, non-GWP substances should be aimed at. Important release reduction measures for refrigeration uses of HCFC are containment, improved maintenance and recycling.

While all three countries - Russia, Ukraine and China - have joined the Montreal Protocol, their ratification of the amendments to the Protocol ruling HCFC is lacking behind. Russia has currently not ratified any obligations as regards reductions of HCFCs, while Ukraine has ratified and China is in accession to obligations as regards consumption of HCFCs, but not to obligations on production and exports of HCFCs. Unfortunately strong economic incentives for HCFC reduction - like the ones existing for greenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol - are lacking. Denmark has so far played a major role in Eastern Europe preparing large ODS reduction projects for financing by international financing institutions.

1.10 Brominated flame retardants

The term `Brominated Flame Retardants' (BFRs) covers a diverse group of or-ganic substances having in common that they contain bromine and act as flame retardants. Traditionally the most widely used substances among the brominated flame retardants have been TBBPA (tetrabromo bisphenol A), PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers), PBBs (polybrominated biphenyls) and HBCD (hexabromocyclododecane). Today PBBs are not produced in any country.

The environmental fate and effects of the BFRs vary considerably among the BFRs, even within the same substance group. In general congeners with lower bromine content are of more concern than congeners with higher bromine content. Two of the BFRs, hexabromobiphenyl (PBB with 6 bromine atoms) and pentabrominated diphenylether (PBDE with 5 bromine atoms) are considered for possible inclusion in the Stockholm Convention. The two substances are already or can easily be replaced by other flame retardants.

BFRs are mainly used in electric and electronic products, textiles and building materials. The electric and electronic products are traded on a global market, and the use of BFRs with finished products will probably be quite similar all over the world. The use of BFRs in building materials and textiles is more variable depending on local tradition and regulation.

The main measure for reduction of the releases of the BFRs is to reduce the use of the substances. The most problematic of the BFRs can easily be replaced by other BFRs, and many of the large companies in the electronics industry have phased out the use of PBDEs and PBBs as part of their corporate environmental strategy. For the major use areas non-halogenated alternatives are available, but for some minor areas no alternatives are available today.

The EU RoHS directive on the restriction of hazardous substances in electric and electronic products stipulates that these products shall not contain PBBs and PBDEs, but most probably the most used of the substances, deca-PBE will be exempted from the restriction, weakening the effect of the Directive as a driving force for the phase-out of the substances in the EU and other parts of the world.

It has not been possible to identify any surveys of BFR use or releases in Russia, Ukraine or China, and most probably they do not exist. Inventory preparation of selected BFR's in the Arctic is included in a new ACAP project with Norway as the lead country.